ANALOG CIRCUITS I

DEEPAK.P ECE SNGCE

UNIT I
RC circuits Diode circuits Voltage regulators

Basics of circuit analysis

Calculate the ID,VR Answer-----7.3V,3.32 mA
VD

0.7V 8V ID VR 2.2 K

Basics of circuit analysis

Calculate the ID,VR
VD

0.7V 8V ID VR 2.2 K

Basics of circuit analysis

Calculate the ID,VR,VD Assume that RD is Germanium Diode
RD Low R

8V ID

VR 2.2 K

Basics of circuit analysis

Calculate the ID,VR,VD Assume that RD is Silicon Diode
RD High R

8V ID

VR 2.2 K

Diode
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Diode

Diode

Diode Biasing
Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its

way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).

Diode

Diode
Reverse Voltage When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect

diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.

Diode characteristics

Ideal Diode
Forward bias
R is Low

Reverse bias
R is High

Real Diode
Forward bias

Cell

Reverse bias

Different Diode Bias

Determine the bias condition of the diode
0V in the 5V following cases -2V -6V

0V

5V

-5V

-3V

5V 5V 5V 0V 3V

5.1V

Diode application
It is useful in non linear wave shaping circuits. Commonly used circuits are
Clippers Clampers. Rectifiers

In electronics, a clipper is a device designed to prevent

the output of a circuit from exceeding a predetermined voltage level without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.

CLIPPING
A clipping circuit consists of linear elements like

resistors and non-linear elements like junction diodes or transistor. Clipping circuits are also called as Slicers, amplitude selectors or limiters. One of the most basic clipping circuit is the half-wave rectifier. A half-wave rectifier clips either the negative half cycle or the positive half cycle of an alternating waveform, and allows to pass only one half cycle.

Application of Clipping
Such a circuit has great applications in

radars, digital computers and other electronic systems for removing unwanted portions of the input signal voltages above or below a specified level. Another application is in radio-receivers for communication circuits where noise pulses that rise well above the signal amplitude are clipped down to the desired level.

Clipper Circuits
The basic components required for a

clipping circuit are an ideal diode and a resistor. In order to fix the clipping level to the desired amount, a dc battery must also be included. Different levels of clipping can be obtained by varying the amount of voltage of the battery and also interchanging the positions of the diode and resistor.

20

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Classification of CLIPPING
Classifications Of Clippers According to non-linear devices used,

clippers may be classified as

Diode clippers and Transistor clippers.

According to biasing, the clippers may be

classified as
Unbiased clippers and Biased clippers.

Classification of CLIPPING
According to configuration used the

clippers may be Series diode clippers

A series combination of diode, resistor and reference supply

Parallel or shunt diode clippers

Multi-diode clippers/Combinational clippers
It consisting of several diodes, resistors and reference voltages.

Classification of CLIPPING
According to level of clipping the clippers

may be
Positive clippers Negative clippers Biased clippers and Combination clippers

Classification of CLIPPING
There are two types of clipper circuits
Series clipping Parallel clipping

Series clipping In these types of circuits, the diode is connected

between the input and output voltage terminals. Parallel clipping In these types of circuits, the diode is connected in parallel.

Positive Clipper

25

Deepak.P

04/21/12

+VE series CLIPPING

Transfer Characteristics

Vm

27

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Negative Diode Clipper

28

Deepak.P

04/21/12

-VE series CLIPPING

Diodes will act as an "ON/OFF switch.

-VE Parallel CLIPPING

Clipper circuits

31

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Negative& Positive Diode Clipper

32

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Biased Negative Clipper

A biased clipper comes in handy when a

small portion of positive or negative half cycles of the signal voltage is to be removed. When a small portion of the negative half cycle is to be removed, it is called a biased negative clipper.

33

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Biased Positive Clipper

34

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Biased Positive Clipper and Biased Negative Clippers

35

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Biased Positive Clipper and Biased Negative Clipper

36

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Combination Clipper
When a portion of both positive and

negative of each half cycle of the input voltage is to be clipped (or removed), combination clipper is employed. The circuit for such a clipper is given in the figure below.

37

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Transistor Clipper
Transistor can be used to clip the I/P waveform. Positive clipper , negative clipper, Combinational

clipper can be designed using Transistor circuit. The practical circuit for positive and negative clipping is Transistor switching circuit. The practical circuit for obtain Double side clipping is Transistor amplifier circuit.

Function of a Simple Switch

An OFF type switch Lamp does not glows No current will flow in the circuit
Lamp

Function of a Simple Switch

An ON type switch
Lamp glows Some amount of current flows in the circuit according to

the resistance.

Lamp

Transistor as a Switch
Bipolar transistors can be made to operate as an

"ON/OFF switch. Because a transistor's collector current is proportionally limited by its base current, it can be used as a current-controlled switch. If the circuit uses the Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing is arranged to operate the transistor in the "Saturation" and "Cut-off" regions.

Transistor as a Switch
If we are using PNP transistor, Battery should be reversed.

Lamp

Transistor Act as an OFF type switch

Transistor is biased in cutoff, lamp OFF , No current flow

Cut OFF Region

Cut-off" region Both junctions are reverse-biased. Here the operating conditions of the transistor are Zero input base current (Ib), Zero output collector current (Ic) Maximum collector voltage (Vce) Here the transistor is switched fully "OFF".

Transistor Act as an ON type switch

Transistor saturated, lamp ON, Current flows

Saturation Region
Saturation" region Both junctions are Forward-biased. Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum

amount of base current is applied, resulting in Maximum collector current flow Minimum collector emitter voltage Here the transistor is switched fully "ON".

Transistor Switching Circuit

Transistor switching circuit can be divided in to two Normally ON type Normally OFF type In normally OFF ,transistor will be in cutoff. In normally ON ,transistor will be in saturation.

O/P Characteristics of CE configuration

Load Line
Soft Saturation Point Hard Saturation Point

Simple Amplifier
VCC

RC RB

I/P

O/P

Amplifier Operation
LOAD LINE
VCC/ (RC+RE) Q POINT

ICQ

VCEQ

VCC

Normally ON type Switch

VCC RB

RC

I/P

O/P

Normally ON type Switch

The Q point of the transistor must fix in the hard

saturation/Soft Saturation point. For that ,fix VCEQ=0.2and ICRC= VCC-VCEQ

VCC/RC Q POINT ICQ

DC Load Line

VCEQ

VCC

Design of Normally ON type Switch

Assume VCC,IC, O/P Loop equation VCC=VCE+ICRC RC=VCC VCE sat/ IC ; I/P Loop equation IC= IB VCC=5 IB RB+VBE

VCE sat=0.2

RB=VCC -VBE / 5 IB

O/P wave form when I/P is Square wave

INPUT

0.2 V OUTPUT

O/P when I/P is Sine wave

VCC/(RC) Q POINT

VCEQ 0.2V

VCC

Normally OFF type Switch

VCC

RC RB

O/P I/P

Normally OFF type Switch

The Q point of the transistor must fix in the cut-off For that ,fix VCEQ=VCC and ICQ=0; To fix ICQ=0 , IB =0, So No Dc bias is applied to the base. Practically a small negative voltage is applied to the Base.

VCC/RC

Q POINT

VCC

Design of Normally OFF type Switch

Assume VCC,IC, O/P Loop equation VCC=VCE+ICRC RC=VCC VCE sat/ IC ; I/P Loop equation IC= IB VCC=5 IB RB+VBE

VCE sat=0.2

RB=VCC -VBE / 5 IB

O/P wave form when I/P is Square wave

INPUT

0.2V OUTPUT

O/P when I/P is Sine wave

ICQ=0 VCEQ=VCC

VCC/(RC)

ICQ

VCC Q POINT

VCEQ

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device that can store electrical charge. The simplest type is a "parallel plate " Capacitor that

consists of two metal plates that are separated by an insulating material. Capacitor is a two-terminal device. Capacitor has two active electrodes.
Anode Cathode

CAPACITOR

Charging of a Capacitor from a DC source

If we connect the two plates to each other with a

battery, the free electrons is accumulated in one plate of a capacitor. Similarly positive charges is accumulated to the another plate.

Charging of a Capacitor
If we quickly remove the wires without touching the

plates, the charge remains on the plates. Because the two plates have different charge, there is a net electric field between the two plates. The "capacitance" of a capacitor is stated in terms of the amount of charge (Q) stored at a given voltage drop (across the capacitor). C=Q/V C=A/d = 0 r

Charging of a Capacitor from a AC source

Assume that, we connect the capacitor to an AC

source. In the positive half cycle + ve charges were accumulated in one plate.

Charging of a Capacitor from a AC source

In the negative half cycle +ve charges were

accumulated in the other plate. It is similar to coupling of an AC signal.

Charging wave form of a Capacitor

Clamping
The clamping circuit can shift the waveform to a

specified voltage level. Clamping circuit actually introduces a dc level to an AC signal. It is also known as DC restorer circuit. It is used in the television receiver to restore the original dc reference voltage to the video signal. In television system ,the dc reference level corresponding to the brightness level of the picture is not transmitted with video signal.

Clamping
A capacitor and a diode can be used to design

clamping circuits. Clamping can be classified in to +ve clamping -ve clamping Biased clamping circuits can be designed to clamp a waveform at a desired level

Problem
Draw the O/P/ wave form when the I/P is 20 Vpp

Vi=Vm Sint VO

Answer

10 V

-10 V

Problem
Draw the O/P/ wave form when the I/P is 20 Vpp and it contains a DC voltage of 2V

Vi=Vm Sint VO

Answer

10 V

2V

-10 V

Simple Clamping

V Battery

Vi=Vm Sint

+
VO

Answer

Vm+V

Vm-V

Simple Clamping

Vm

+
Vi=Vm Sint

VO

Answer

Vm-V

-V -Vm-V

Simple Diode Clamping

In negative half cycle ;Vo=vi+Vm=Vm Sint+Vm Vm

Capacitor

+
Vi=Vm Sint

VO

Simple Diode Clamping

Vm

Simple Diode Clamping

Vm Vm

O/P when I/P is square wave

Vm+Vm

Simple Diode Clamping

In the 2nd positive half cycle;Vo=Vi-Vm=Vm Sint-Vm Vm

Capacitor

Vi=Vm Sint

+
VO

O/P when I/P is square wave

Vm+Vm

O/P when I/P is square wave

Vm+Vm

Problem
The I/p signal with 24 Vpp is applied to a clamper circuit. Sketch the O/P wave form Vm

Vi=Vm Sint

+
VO

Problem
The I/p signal with 24 Vpp is applied to a clamper circuit. Sketch the O/P wave form Vm

+
VO

Positive Clamping
Draw the o/p wave form Vm

+
VO

O/P when I/P is square wave

Vm+Vm

Negative Clamping
Draw the o/p wave form Vm

+
VO

Biased Clamper
The I/p signal with 24 Vpp is applied to a clamper circuit. Sketch the O/P wave form Vm

Vi=Vm Sint

+
5V

VO

Biased Clamper

Biased Clamper

Biased Clamper

Biased Clamper

RC Circuits
An RC circuit is simply a circuit with a

voltage source (battery) connected in series with a resistor and a capacitor. A resistor-capacitor circuit (RC circuit), or RC filter or RC network, is an electric circuit composed of resistors and capacitors driven by a voltage or current source. The 1st order RC circuit, composed of one resistor and one capacitor, is the simplest example of an RC circuit.
95 Deepak.P 04/21/12

RC Circuits

96

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RC Circuits
As with circuits made up simply of

97

resistors, electrical currents can flow in this RC circuit, with one modification. A battery connected in series with a resistor will produce a constant current. The same battery in series with a capacitor will produce a time varying current, which decays gradually to zero. If the battery is removed and the circuit reconnected without the battery, a current will flow (for a short time) in the opposite direction as the capacitor "discharges". A measure of Deepak.P 04/21/12 how long these transient currents last in a

RC Circuits
Time Constant The time constant of an RC circuit is the

98

product of its resistance and capacitance. For R in ohms and C in farads, the time constant t is in seconds. T = RC The range of frequencies that the filter passes is called its bandwidth. The point at which the filter attenuates the signal to half its unfiltered power is termed its cutoff frequency. This requires that the gain of the Deepak.P circuit be reduced to 04/21/12

RC Circuits

99

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RC Circuits

100

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RC Circuits
High Pass Filter A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to that

of Low Pass filter circuit, as now the two components have been interchanged with the output signal (Vout) being taken from across the resistor. Where the low pass filter only allowed signals to pass below its cut-off frequency point, c, the passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies, only passes signals above the selected cut-off point, c eliminating any low frequency signals from the waveform.
101 Deepak.P 04/21/12

High Pass Filter

In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at Vin until the cut-off frequency point (c) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit allowing all of the input signal to pass directly to the output as shown below in the High Pass Frequency Response Curve.

102

Deepak.P

04/21/12

High Pass Filter

103

Deepak.P

04/21/12

High Pass Filter

Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift

The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is calculated as:

104

Deepak.P

04/21/12

High Pass Filter

High pass filter stages can be cascaded

together to form a second-order (two-pole) filter as shown.

105

Deepak.P

04/21/12

High Pass Filter

A very common application of a passive

high pass filter, is in audio amplifiers as a coupling capacitor between two audio amplifier stages and in speaker systems to direct the higher frequency signals to the smaller "tweeter" type speakers while blocking the lower bass signals or are also used as filters to reduce any low frequency noise or "rumble" type distortion. When used like this in audio applications the high pass filter is sometimes called a "low-cut", or "bass cut" filter.
106 Deepak.P 04/21/12

High Pass Filter

RC Differentiator

107

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RC Differentiator
Each cycle of the square wave input waveform

produces two spikes at the output, one positive and one negative and whose amplitude is equal to that of the input. The rate of decay of the spikes depends upon the time constant, (RC) value of both components, (t = R x C) and the value of the input frequency. The output pulses resemble more and more the shape of the input signal as the frequency increases.

108

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RC Differentiator
From theory we know that the voltage

across the resistor in an RC circuit is given by: Charging: vR = Vp e- tRC Discharging: vR = - Vp e- tRC

109

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RC Integrator
From theory we know that the voltage

across the capacitor in an RC circuit is given by:

Charging: vc = Vp (1 e-t/RC) Discharging: vc = Vp e- tRC

110

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RC Integrator

111

Deepak.P

04/21/12

RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts

alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.

RECTIFIERS(Contd..)
Rectifiers can be divided in to two
Half wave Rectifiers Full wave Rectifiers

In half wave rectification, either the positive or

negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS(Contd..)

Full WAVE RECTIFIERS

Full WAVE RECTIFIERS

Full WAVE RECTIFIERS

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of

the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for halfwave rectification. Four rectifiers arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier.

Bridge RECTIFIERS

Regulated Power Supply

There are many types of power supply.

Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.

Regulated Power Supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below: Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC. Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple. Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage. Transformer only Transformer + Rectifier Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Zener Diode

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.

121

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Zener Regulator
Zener diodes are widely used as voltage

references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value.

122

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Zener Regulator
A Zener diode is a PN junction that has

been specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. Its characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the voltage across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator.
123 Deepak.P 04/21/12

Zener characteristic

124

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Zener Regulator

125

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Zener Regulator

126

Deepak.P

04/21/12

Fixed IC voltage Regulators

Voltage Regulator (regulator), usually

127

having three legs, converts varying input voltage and produces a constant regulated output voltage. They are available in a variety of outputs. The most common part numbers start with the numbers 78 or 79 and finish with two digits indicating the output voltage. The number 78 represents positive voltage and 79 negative one. The 78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input. And the 79XX series is designed for Deepak.P 04/21/12 negative input.