OSI MODEL

• The model
• Functions of the layers
Figure 3-1
OSI Model
 The OSI Model in Practice
• The transmitting process generates data to be used by the receiving
process.
• In each OSI layer along the way down the model, data is added -
and subsequently used by the corresponding layer at the receiving
end.
• This data is normally in the form of a header at the beginning of a
data packet that arrives from the layer above.
• In the link layer, data is often added at the end of the packet as well,
in the form of a trailer.
• Each OSI layer has its own data format protocol.
Figure 3-2
OSI Layers
Figure 3-3
An Exchange Using the OSI Model
Figure 3-4

Physical Layer
Figure 3-5

Data Link Layer

Figure 3-6

Data Link Layer Example

Figure 3-7

Network Layer
Figure 3-9
Transport Layer
 The layers at Work
NODE A NODE B
Sending Device Receiving Device

Layer 7 Supports the communication between Layer 7

Application Layer applications over the network Application Layer

Layer 6 Presents data to the receiver Layer 6

Presentation Layer in a form it recognises Presentation Layer

Layer 5 Establishes a connection and Layer 5

Session Layer terminates it when no longer required Session Layer

Layer 4 Acknowledges the flow of data Layer 4

Transport Layer including re-transmission where required Transport Layer

Layer 3 Adds the appropriate network Layer 3

Network Layer addresses to packets Network Layer

Layer 2 Adds the MAC addresses to packets Layer 2

Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Transmits the data on the medium Layer 1

Physical Layer Physical Layer
 Encapsulation

Application DATA

P resentation Header
Presentation PH DATA

Session Session Header SH PH DATA

Transport Transport Header TH SH PH DATA

Network Network Header NH TH SH PH DATA

Data Link Data Link Header DLH NH TH SH PH DATA DLT Data Link Trailer

Physical Bits

To Destination Device
Network Architecture
 Framing
• Divide stream of bits received from
network layer into manageable data bit
called frames
 Physical addressing
• If frames are to be distributed to different
system on the network it add a header to
frame to define physical address of sender
and receiver of the frame
 Access control
• When two or more device are connected
to the same link dl protocol are necessary
to determine which device has control
over link at any given time
 Logical addressing
• Physical addressing implemented by data link
layer handle addressing problem locally.if a
packet passes the network boundary we need
another addressing system to help distinguish
the source and desti system. The network layer
add a header to packet coming from upper layer
include logical address of sender and
reciever
 Routing
• When independent networks are
connected together to create an
internetwork or a large network the
connecting devices(router or gateway)
route the packets to their final destination
 Segmentation
• A message is divided into transmittable
segments ,each segment containing a
sequence number.These numbers enable
the transport to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination
and to identify and replace packets that
were lost in the transmission
 Connection control
• Connectionless or connection oriented
 Dialog control
• Allow two system to enter into a dialog. It
allow two process to take place either in
half or full duplex
 Synchronization
• Allow a process to add checkpoint into a
• Stream of data
 Encryption
• Sender transform the original information
into other form

• COMPRESSION
• Reduce number of bits to be transmitted
 The Physical Layer
• This layer is concerned with two things: bits and signals.
• Functions:
– controls the actual transmission of ones and zeros (the electrical
signals that make up a 1 or 0 across the network).
– ensures that when the sender transmits a signal that is a 1, the
receiver receives that signal as a 1.
– decides exactly how many volts equal a binary 1 or a binary 0.
– establishes how long a signal needs to be in duration to be
considered a valid 1 or 0.
– decides whether or not communications can proceed in both
directions simultaneously, or only one direction at a time.
– decides how many wire pairs are needed for a given type of
network, the required quality of the wire, etc.
 The Physical Layer – Cont.

• This layer receives frames of data from Layer 2, the Data Link Layer,
and sends them out onto the transmission media as a serial stream of
ones and zeros.
• It receives ones and zeros from the transmission media, and sends
them up to Layer 2 so they can be assembled into frames.
• It deals with the processes and mechanisms that place signals on to,
and receive signals from the transmission media. It does not include
the physical transmission media, itself.
• Informally, the physical transmission media tends to be called Layer
zero.
 The Data Link Layer
• The main task of the data link layer is to supply the network layer a
free of transmission errors link.
• It accomplishes that by having the sender break the input data up
into data frames, transmit the frames sequentially, and process the
acknowledgment frames sent back by the receiver.
• Since the physical layer accepts and transmits a stream of bits
without any regard to meaning of structure, it is up to the data link
layer to create and recognize frame boundaries.
 The Data Link Layer – Cont.

• When receiving a frame, it examines the frame content to ensure the

contents of the frame arrived with the correct content.
• This is accomplished attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and
end of the frame.
• A noise burst on the line can destroy a frame, in this case, the data link
layer software on the source machine must retransmit the frame.
• Multiple transmissions of the same frame introduce the possibility of
duplicate frames.
• It is up to this layer to solve the problems caused by damaged, lost, and
duplicate frames.
 The Data Link Layer – Cont.
• Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the
higher layers as well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from
drowning a slow receiver in data.
• Some traffic regulation mechanism must be employed in order to let
the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver has at the
moment.
• Frequently, flow regulation and error handling are integrated.
 The Network Layer

• The network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the

subnet.
• A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from
source to destination.
• Routes could be based on static tables that are "wired into" the
network and rarely changed.
• They could also be determined at the start of each conversation, for
the data transfer of this conversation.
• They could be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each
packet, to reflect the current network load.
 The Network Layer – Cont.

• When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to

its destination, many problems can arise:
– The addressing used by the second network may be different
from the first one.
– The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is
too large.
– The protocols may differ.
• It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.
• In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network
layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
 The Transport Layer
• The basic function of the transport layer, is to accept data from the
session layer, split it up into smaller units if needed, pass these to
the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at
the other end.
• On the other hand, it gets data from the network layer, union the
pieces if they were split and pass them to the session layer.
 The Transport Layer – Cont.
• The transport layer creates a distinct network connection for each
transport connection required by the session layer.
• If the transport connection requires a high throughput, the transport
layer might create multiple network connections, dividing the data
among the network connections to improve throughput.
• On the other hand, if creating or maintaining a network connection is
expensive, the transport layer might multiplex several transport
connections onto the same network connection to reduce the cost.
• In all cases, the transport layer is required to make the multiplexing
transparent to the session layer.
 The Transport Layer – Cont.
• It determines what type of service to provide to the session layer,
and ultimately, the users of the network.
• The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-
to-point channel that delivers messages in the order in which they
were sent.
• The type of service is determined when the connection is
established.
 The Transport Layer – Cont.
• The transport layer is a true source-to-destination or end-to-end
layer.
• A program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a
similar program on the destination machine, using the message
headers and control messages.
• Many hosts are multi-programmed, which implies that multiple
connections will be entering and leaving each host.
• There needs to be some way to tell which message belongs to
which connection. The transport header is one place this information
could be put.
 The Transport Layer – Cont.

• The transport layer must take care of establishing and deleting

connections across the network.
• This requires some kind of naming mechanism, so that process on
one machine has a way of describing with whom it wishes to
converse.
• There must also be a mechanism to regulate the flow of information,
so that a fast host cannot overrun a slow one.
• The flow control at the host level is different from the flow control at
the subnet level, but similar principles are implemented.
 The Session Layer
• The session layer allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
• One of the services of the session layer is to manage dialogue
control.
• Sessions can allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time,
or in only one direction at a time.
• If traffic can only go one way at a time, the session layer can help
keep track of whose turn it is.
 The Session Layer – Cont.
• A related session service is token management.
• For some protocols, it is essential that both sides do not attempt the
same operation at the same time.
• To manage these activities, the session layer provides tokens that
can be exchanged.
• Only the side holding the token may perform the critical operation.
 The Session Layer – Cont.
• Another session service is synchronization.
• Consider the problems that might occur when trying to do a two-
hour file transfer between two machines on a network with a 1 hour
mean time between crashes.
• After each transfer was aborted, the whole transfer would have to
start over again, and would probably fail again with the next network
crash.
• To eliminate this problem, the session layer provides a way to insert
checkpoints into the data stream, so that after a crash, only the data
after the last checkpoint has to be repeated.
 The Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer performs certain functions that are requested
sufficiently often to warrant finding a general solution for them,
rather than letting each user solve the problems.
• In particular, unlike all the lower layers, which are just interested in
moving bits reliably from here to there, the presentation layer is
concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted.
 The Presentation Layer – Cont.
• A typical example of a presentation service is encoding data in a
standard, agreed upon way.
• Most user programs do not exchange random binary bit strings.
They exchange things such as people's names, dates, amounts of
money, etc.
• These items are represented as character strings, integers, floating
point numbers, and data structures composed of several simpler
items.
• Different computers have different codes for representing character
strings, integers and so on.
• In order to make it possible for computers with different
representation to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged
define along with a standard encoding.
 The Presentation Layer – Cont.
• The job of managing these abstract data structures and converting
from the representation used inside the computer to the network
standard representation is handled by the presentation layer.
• The presentation layer is also concerned with other aspects of
information representation.
• For example:
– data compression - reduce the number of bits that have to be
transmitted
– cryptography - privacy and authentication.
 The Application Layer
• The layer that we are most used.
• The 'application' in Application Layer is not the actual user
application, such as Netscape, or OutLook Express, it is the
application of the network for those applications, such as e-mail, FTP,
HTTP, etc.
• For example, to get new mail, an e-mail application would create an
Application Layer request for POP3 services. This request is then
processed through all the lower layers to the network, and up through
the layers at the server.
 OSI Layers
• Physical
– Physical char of interface and media
– Represention of bits
– Representation of bits(how 0 or 1 change into signals)
– Data rate
– Synchronization of bits
– line configuration
– Physical topology
– Transmission mode

• Data Link
– Error-free stream
– Physical addressing
– Framing packets
– Flow control,
– access control
• Network
– Routing packets
– Congestion control
– Logical addressing
 OSI Layers
• Transport
–End-to-end flow control
–Error control
–Connection control
–segmentation
–Service point addressingSequencing, error recovery
–multiplexing

• Session
• Dialog control
• Token management
• Synchronization
 Presentation

– Translation
– Encryption
– Compression
– Information syntax/semantics
– Storage format : “standard” encoding
 Application
1. Network virtual ternimal(is a software
version of physical ternimal and allow
user to log on to a remote host
2. FTAM(this appl allow user to access files
in remote computer
3. MAIL SERVICE(E mail forwarding)
TCP/IP Reference Model
Taxonomy
 TCP/IP Model – Summary
• Application or Process Layer – concerned with
how data at both ends is handled.
• Transport Layer – manages flow of data
• Internet Layer – consists of several protocols,
primary protocol is IP (providing hierarchical
addressing scheme
• Data Link (or Network Interface) Layer – manages
transmission of data within the network
• Physical Layer – not really defined, TCP/IP leaves
the physical connection to manage itself
 OSI vs. TCP/IP

• OSI Network: • TCP/IP Network:

– Connectionless or Connectionless.
– connection-oriented.

• OSI Transport
– Connectionless.
• TCP/IP
Transport:
Connectionless or
connection-oriented svc.
 DIFFERENCE
• Key concern in OSI is Services, interfaces &Protocols
• OSI model before protocols, TCP/IP after Protocols
• TCP/IP 4/5 layers and TCP/IP 7 layers
• NETWORK LAYER
OSI - Connectionless or connection-oriented.
TCP/IP :Connectionless.
• TRANSPORT LAYER-
OSI-Connectionless.
TCP/IP : Connectionless or connection-oriented svc.