Smallest living unit of an organism Grow, reproduce, use energy, adapt, respond to their environment Most of the cells

cannot be seen with the naked eye A cell may be an entire organism or it may be one of billions of cells that make up the organism Divided and classified in many ways One common classification method is the presence or absence of a cell nucleus Prokaryotes have no nucleus Eukaryotes have a nucleus

Prokaryotic Cell Structure Prokaryotic cells are not as complex as eukaryotic cells. They have no true nucleus as the DNA is not contained within a membrane or separated from the rest of the cell, but is coiled up in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. Using bacteria as our sample prokaryote, the following structures can be found in bacterial cells: Capsule - Found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects the cell when it is engulfed by other organisms, assists in retaining moisture, and helps the cell adhere to surfaces and nutrients. Cell Wall - Outer covering of most cells that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape. In B/w the plasma mem. & inner mem. A region filled with peptidoglycan (Protein + oligosaccharide mix) that gives the cell far more rigidity Cytoplasm - A gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules.

Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane - Surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell. Internal membrane - This membrane is attached to the plasma membrane with various proteins including (in some cells) those responsible for the production of energy. In eukaryotic cell, not present as it has evolved into various cell organelles Ribosomes - Cell structures responsible for protein production. Plasmids - Gene carrying, circular DNA structures that are not involved in reproduction. Nucleiod Region - Area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecule. Nucleic acids: All cells (both) have Nucleic acids : DNA. Prokaryoctic cells have far less DNA & in a simpler form Ratio Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cell DNA is roughly 1: 1000 40,000 Pili - Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that attach to other bacterial cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help bacteria attach to surfaces. Flagella - Long, whip-like protrusion that aids in cellular locomotion.

 Some clinical Implications

In staining bacteria often are described as Gram positive & gram negative. This is related to the thickness of the cell wall A thick cell wall results in gram positive & the thin cell walls are negative

Length of DNA: when DNA OF A SINGLE CELL laid out straight would stretch to 10 cms.

The cytoskeleton is a complex web in the cytoplasm. These webs are of scaffold-like proteins that allow various proteins to migrate from one region of the cell to another region. The cytoskeleton provides rigidity to the cell and through continued rearrangement can allow the cell to move ; motility The cyto skeleton arrangement consists of 3 filaments: Microtubes Microfilaments Intermediate filaments
In neurons, neurotransmitter, like all proteins are synthesized by ribosomes controlled by DNA. A singlr neuron may be 20 mts (whale) so the trnsmission with in a neuron cell is carried by the microtubules (complex highway like arrangments)

Smooth ER has a smoother appearance than rough ER when viewed through the microscope because it does not have ribosomes attached to it. This folded membrane structure is responsible for the synthesis of lipids, phospholipids & steroids. The extent of a cells SER is dependent on cells function; cells producing a lot of lipid products will have large amount of S E R. Eg:- Adrenal cortex where steroid hormone are produced However all cell types will have some SER. As it is essential for the formation of plasma membrane

The cell membrane is composed of two layers, each composed of trillions of Phospholipid molecules oriented in a special manner. Phospholipids are very much like triglycerides but with one important difference. A phosphate functional group is substituted for one of the three fatty acids. They are created when two fatty acids and a phosphate bond to form an organic compound. A bilayer membrane is formed spontaneously when phospholipids are dispersed in an aqueous solution. It has to do with the hydrophobic (repels water) and hydrophilic (attracted to water) nature of the various part of the organic compound. This portion of the ER is involved with the production of lipids (fats), carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxification of drugs and poisons. Smooth ER is also involved with metabolizing calcium to mediate some cell activities. In muscle cells, smooth ER releases calcium to trigger muscle contractions. Cells specializing in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism (brain, muscle) or detoxification (liver) usually have more of this type of ER.

Plasma membrane All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. The plasma membrane consists of a bilayer of phospholipid. The molecular properties of which is hydrophilic on the extracellular and intracellular surface, whilst the core of the bilamina is hydrophobic. This provides structural rigidity to the membrane whilst also making it compatible with its watery environment. The key gases for cell function (oxygen and carbon dioxide) can diffuse freely across the plasma membrane while other important molecules (e.g. proteins) must be actively transported across the membrane. Embedded in the phospholipid bilayer is a myriad of proteins that have a vast range of functions. Some of the key functions of these proteins include: Facilitate the transport of molecules into the cell cytoplasm; as receptors and signal changes in cell function; Act Provide adhesion sites for other cells; and a role in the defence of the cell. Play

 R E R is a series of folded membranes. On the surface of these folded membranes is an abundance of ribosomes. The R E R is closely associated with the nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope. The R E R is a continuous membrane with branching tubules and flattened sacs that extend throughout the cytoplasm. It is connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a connection between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. This association is very essential ??????????? The mRNA derived from DNA enters between the folds of R E R and the proteins once synthesized by ribosomes are processed & transported through the membrane wall by active transport mechanism.

This type of RER is involved mainly with the production of proteins that will be exported, or secreted, from the cell. The ribosomes assemble amino acids into units of proteins, which are transported into the rough ER for further processing. Once inside, the proteins are folded into the correct three-dimensional conformation. Chemicals, such as carbohydrates or sugars, are added, then the RER either transports the completed proteins to areas of the cell where they are needed, or they are sent to the Golgi apparatus for export.

 Golgi apparatus is closely associated with the rough endoplasmic reticulum in the cell. they are responsible for the packing & labeling of proteins. The proteins from the R E R are transported to Golgi app. & from Golgi app to plasma membrane via vesicles. Golgi apparatus modifies the received proteins, adding signal molecules to ensure that the protein reaches the necessary location

Golgi bodies are usually found near the rough endoplasmic reticulum in the cell. They are comprised of a stack of membrane structures known as cisternae. There are four structural parts to the cisternae: the cis-Golgi, endo-Golgi, medial-Golgi and the trans-Golgi. Each of the different areas of the Golgi cisternae contains different types of enzymes which control a large variety of functions. The cis-Golgi is the section nearest to the endoplasmic reticulum and it is where the Golgi apparatus first receives the cargo vesicles containing the newly synthesized proteins. Most of the various functions of the Golgi apparatus occur as the cargo proteins pass through the endo-Golgi and medial-Golgi sections. Eventually, they end up at the trans-Golgi, located at the opposite end from the cis-Golgi. This is where the finished product is packaged for transportation to the rest of the cell. The main overall function of the Golgi apparatus is to take the proteins that are manufactured in the endoplasmic reticulum, process them according to specific needs and then send them on to their destinations. These functions include: Processes such as phosphorylation and glycosylation are used to modify the various cargo proteins received from the endoplasmic reticulum. Nucleotide sugars are imported from the cytosol and used in the phosphorylation and glycosylation processes. Production of polysaccharides and glycosaminoglycans to be used in the manufacturing of carbohydrates. Some of the glycosaminoglycans are used elsewhere to form parts of connective tissues. Synthesis of proteoglycans by attaching the long non-branched polysaccharides and glycosaminoglycans to some proteins. Some cargo proteins are broken down into smaller actively functioning fragments. The addition of sulfate groups to some proteins via the help of sulfotransferases. This gives the molecule a negative charge which is an important part of the signaling properties of the molecule. The addition of phosphate groups to some proteins. Formation of lysosomes for the transportation of lipids to other parts of the cell. Formation of core proteins by the polymerization of the glycosaminoglycans. The Bcl-2 gene present in the Golgi apparatus plays an important roll in the prevention of apoptosis.

In all cells, particularly those of synthetic nature, small spherical membrane inclusions are formed. These vesicles contain the various proteins and molecules, that are either to be exocytosed (eliminated from the cell) or endocytosed (incorporated into the cells) Both these processes involve merging of the vesicle membrane with the plasma membrane. Some vesicles are involved in intracellular transport; moving proteins from one organelle to another.

Mitochondria are considered as the POWER HOUSE OF THE CELL. Mitochondria consists of two membrane structure. The outer membrane is permeable to almost all proteins and the inner membrane is less permeable.

The inner mem. consists of only 20% of lipid & the rest is protein.
This proportion is different than that found almost other membranes where predominant constituent is lipid. The inner membrane has folds that press into the matrix which fills the mitochondria. The inner membrane and the matrix that has the enzymes responsible for the biochemical process to form ATP from ADP. Mitochondria also contain small amounts of DNA. In eukaryotic cells this is the only DNA that is found outside the nucleus. This DNA does not undergo division during cell division. It is believed that mitochondria were parasites that invaded the cells in early evolution & have adapted to intercellular environment. Most imp symbiotic relationship know to science

The mitochondria take ADP (Adenosine diphosphate), Oxygen & glucose and through an oxidative biochemical pathway covert ADP to ATP

RIBOSOMES
1. Unlike most other organelles, ribosomes are not surrounded by a membrane. 2. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in a cell. 3. They are the most common organelles in almost all cells. 4. Some are free in the cytoplasm (Prokaryotes); others line the membranes of rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER). 5. They exist in two sizes: 70s are found in all Prokaryotes, chloroplasts and mitochondria, suggesting that they have evolved from ancestral Prokaryotic organisms. They are free-floating. 80s found in all eukaryotic cells attached to the rough ER (they are rather larger). 6. Groups of 80s ribosomes, working together, are known as a polysome.

Lysosomes and peroxisomes: Special vacuoles, which are designed to digest things (such as worn-out or excess cell parts, food particles, invading viruses or bacteria, etc) with digestive enzymes. They contain different digestive enzymes, therefore digest different things. Additionally lysosomes are formed from the Golgi apparatus, whereas peroxisomes are formed from the ER.

CENTRIOLE 1. This consists of two bundles of microtubules at rightangles to each other. 2. Each bundle contains 9 tubes in a very characteristic arrangement 3. At the start of mitosis and meiosis, the centriole divides, and one half moves to each end of the cell, forming the spindle. 4. The spindle fibres are later shortened to pull the chromosomes apart.

The primary role of some cells is the absorption of extracellular proteins & other molecules. These cells have adapted to this function by increasing their surface area, thereby giving a much larger area for diffusion. This increase in surface are is by formation of tiny (< 0.5 m tall) projections from the surface. These projections are called MICROVILLI and contain some cytosolic filaments to give them rigidity

These, like microvilli, are projections from the cell surface. These are significantly longer than the microvilli, measuring > 1.5 m tall. Their function is to produce a rhythmic beating motion that moves extracellular material over the cells surface. Like.. Those in trachea move mucus secretions from lungs to the oral cavity for swallowing. Each cilium contains a highly organized cluster of microtubule components that are attached to the cytoskeleton of the cell. These microtubules produce the movement within the cilia. Cilia are attached firmly to the apical surface of the cell by basal bodies.