India

Ancient Civilizations

Geography

Subcontinent
Juts out from the main Asian continent Isolated area Himalayan Mountains and Hindu Kush

Monsoons
strong winds Oct to May winter monsoons dry air June summer monsoons moisture from Ocean Rain if late/weak causes famine, too much means flooding

Geography
n

Barriers and Pathways

Passes in Hindu Kush let invading peoples in
Earliest Indus Valley peoples

Rives from mountain snow melt

Indus and Ganges rivers Flow across plains, allow agriculture

Geography
n

Rich soil from silt

Continuous supply Farming grains and surpluses
Allows cities to develop 2500-1500BC Indus River Civilization
Well planned Mohenjo-Daro and Happara

Indus Valley Civilization

a Primary Phase Culture
All elements of civilization (food surplus, government, public works, language, complex religion, specialized workers)

little or no continuity with the following cultures forgotten until the 19th Century
rediscovered by the British, while building railroads

Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.

Harappan Culture
Indus valley
not desert well-watered and heavily forested

500 miles along the river valley

10-20 times larger than Mesopotamia or Egypt

Foundations of Harappan Society

The Indus River
Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges

Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500 BCE

Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of poultry Decline after 1900 BCE

Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-Daro (mouth of Indus River)
70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

India

Harappan culture sites

Hydraulic Culture
like Egypt and Mesopotamia agriculture and flood-control significant industry and trade cities very common

Lack of Sources
literate culture
we cannot read the writing writing on bricks and seals did not use paper or clay tablets

Indus Gods
The earliest accepted Gods were
Dyaush-pita (the sky father), Prithivi mata ( the earth mother), Vayu (the wind God), Parjanya (the rain God), Surya (the sun God), Varuna (the God of oceans), Agni (the fire God), Indra (the war God), Soma (the God of speech, deity of soma creeper), Ushas (the Goddess of dawn), Yama (the God of death),

Unicorn seal + writing

More seals

and more seals...

Seated yogi : early Shiva?

Reasonable generalizations
rapid development: early 2,000s B.C. roughly contemporary with Egypt and Mesopotamia early village culture changing rapidly to urban civilization

Generalizations, cont
cities dominated both economic and political activity origins of the people are unclear
similar to the Mediterranean type

Major Cities
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
surrounded by smaller cities, towns, and villages

one situated in the north one situated in the south

Mohenjo-Daro Ruins
Population c. 40,000 Regional center
Layout, architecture suggests public purpose Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage

Standardized weights evident throughout region Specialized labor Trade

Cities, cont
uniform culture over a wide area cities built on a common plan
a grid: always NS and EW axes
with twelve smaller grids

kiln-dried brick

Grid map of Mohenjo-daro

Mohenjo-daro : aerial view

Mohenjo-daro view of the Citadel

The Great Bath

another view of the Great Bath

view of a small, side street

looks like a small tower, but actually it is a neighborhood well

A bathroom on a private residence

A public well in Harappa, or perhaps an ancient laundromat...

A large drain or sewer

Monumental architecture
very-large scale building walled cites, with fortified citadels
always on the same scale palaces, temples

Architecture, cont
large grain storage facilities near temples
a theocracy ? planned economy

Harappan granary

Cities
very densely populated
houses: two to three stories every house is laid out the same

Culture and Society

advanced agriculture
surplus production

domesticated animals and fish

textiles: wool and cotton

Bronze Age technology

no swords spears and bows stone arrow heads

Society
dominated by priests ?
from the fortified palaces and temples power base: fertility

deities: male and female, both nude

bull worship

A priest?

A bull

Trade
with lower Mesopotamia but gradually declined

Decline
domination of an indigenous people ?
who rebelled ?

foreign invasion? gradual decline ?

Combination of Changes
climate shift: the monsoon patterns flooding destruction of the forests migrations of new peoples: the Aryans

The Aryan Invasion

Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north
not to be confused with Hitlers Aryans Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of Harappa and lower India Color Bias
tall, blue-eyed, fair-skinned describe the indigenous population as short, black, noseless, and slaves

Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military conquest

Continuous flow of Aryans over a long period of time gradual infiltration more primitive than the earlier culture Used chariots, raised forward w/bows and arrows, rearmed and returned Seems to be key to invasion

Possible route of the Aryan invasions

The Aryans
Emphasis on warfare
restless, warlike people leaders chosen for military prowess Courage highest ideal Villages and kingdoms constantly fighting

Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle

Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries later Wealth from cattle* and victories won Hunting, gambling, and rustling cattle Fighting, drinking, chariot racing Take soma psychotropic mushroom?

The Aryans, cont

these Aryans speak an Indo-European dialect
related to other languages like Greek and Latin English father, Latin pater, Celtic athir, Sanskrit pitar

they called themselves Aryans

their land: Aryavarta land of the Aryans

By 1200 B.C. still no cites (300 yrs)

Not literate (no written language) No record system, little evidence No central authority, tribes small villages, mobile, wooden
Chiefs and kings Religious leaders

Class system

Memorize formulas for worship and sacrifice

Aristocrats and freemen

The Early Aryans

Religious and Literary works: The Vedas
Sanskrit: sacred tongue Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali Four Vedas, most important, oldest Rig Veda Veda means knowledge 1,028 hymns (oral poetry) to gods passed down orally from priests and singers comes to have a sacred character written down in the 500s our primary source
early Aryan tradition, later Hindu religion provides some historical information

Aryans and Hindus

Aryans give rise to Hindu society but different characteristics
cows: they ate them classes, but no castes priests subordinate to the nobility

Indias Classical Age

Aryans began to expand territories

Took over smaller, weaker areas Chiefs villages became cities Cotton farming and cloth making provided funding Almost constant war/conflict By 600 BC 16 nations in N. India
Dravidians in Deccan were still isolated

Indias Classical Age

Aryan rulers became raja

Extensive wooden palaces Advisers for war and peace Scribes wrote down sacred literature (rather than recording conquests)

Brahman Religion grows

Commonly called Hinduism Reinforced class system

Indias Classical Period

Aryan class system

All men/women born unequal Highest priestly class or Brahmans
Monopoly on religious practices Memorized religious texts Indra god of war most popular

After 600BC, some vedas written

To train young Brahmans? Earliest copy from about 100 AD Used to address the gods

Indias Classical Period

Primary gods
Indra god of war Agni gave fire Varuna directed cosmic order Vishnu incarnated to help humans Brahman highest deity, omnipotent
All other deities are reflections of him

Most ceremonies performed outdoors

Vishnu
Rama, Sri Ramachandra, the prince and king of Ayodhya, appeared in the Treta Yuga. Represents a married man with children in a very ideological society Krishna (meaning dark or black; see also other meanings in the article about him.), appeared in the Dwapara Yuga. Represents a person in more practical society, where there is one good or bad. Good or bad depends on society you live in. Gautama Buddha is considered an avatar that returned pure dharma to the world. Kalki ("Eternity", or "time", or "The Destroyer of foulness"), who is expected to appear at the end of Kali Yuga, the time period in which we currently exist, which will end in the year 428899 CE.

Vishnu
Matsya, the fish, appeared in the Satya Yuga. Represents beginning of life. Kurma, the tortoise, appeared in the Satya Yuga. Represents a human embryo just growing tiny legs, with a huge belly. Varaha, the boar, appeared in the Satya Yuga. Represents a human embryo which is almost ready. Its features are visible. Narasimha, the Man-Lion (Nara = man, simha = lion), appeared in the Satya Yuga. Represents a newborn baby, hairy and cranky, bawling and full of blood. Vamana, the Dwarf, appeared in the Treta Yuga. Represents an young child. Parashurama, Rama with the axe, appeared in the Treta Yuga. Represents both an angry young man and a grumpy old man simultaneously.

Hindu god statues

Ganesh remover of obstacles Shiva the destroyer Parvati aspect of Devi

Hindu god statues

Lakshmi goddess of wealth Dancing Lord Shiva as Nataraia

Durga the unconquerable

Hindu god statues

Shakti feminine creation Vishnu the Preserver

Sarawati goddess of wisedom

Indias Classical Period

Mahabharata and Ramayana

Epic poems, supplements the Vedas
Major literary works Added to by later authors over the ages Mahabharata = longest poem in world
The Bhagavad-Gita section = main tenants of Hinduism Arjuna, a warrior prepares himself for battle, doubts (family), charioteer Lord Krishna/Vishnu body is only one part of a person

Ramayana = story of Rama, displaced princes fight for his wife and throne

Krishna with Arjuna on the battlefield of Kuruksketra

Krishna reveals himself to Arjuna in his manifold aspects

The Iron Age: new sources

the Upanishads: interpretations and symbolic studies
Form 700-500BC, philosophers interp of Vedas From Sanskrit sit near the guru forerunners of later dissenting literature

Strain of change
Iron Age change causes strain on the class system blurring of lines between Aryans and Daas
answered with the caste system

Caste System, 1000 BC

Puts Aryans above indigenous Dravidians
Racial purity and control

ritual purity
Different wells Violations = punishment, even death

Us--Them feelings divine order of four castes or Varnas

Brahmins: the priests Kshatriyas: the warriors Vaisyas: merchants and peasants Sudras: non-Aryans Harijans: Untouchables

Castes
define a persons social universe define a persons standard of conduct define a persons expectations define a persons future define how a person deals with others

Caste system in practice

warrior class did not always accept it nor the other classes the process of evolution is still going on the most powerful organizer of Indian society
thousand of castes today
persons social universe persons standard of conduct persons expectations persons future how a person deals with others

Define

Caste system, cont

enforced by Brahmins
literature emphasized the divine order
Position determined by dharma from pervious life Can earn good karma to move up in the next life (bad karma moves down) Try to achieve Moshka, beyond personal existence

hierarchical relationship Influenced inheritance and marriage

Family more important than the individual Arranged marriages, mother-in-law Multiple generations within one household

Challenges to Brahmans

Mahariva (Great Hero) 6th Cen BC

Nobel birth, life of luxury, troubled
12 years as a beggar, wanderer Understood desire are root of problem, causes clutter 2nd insight must preserve all life at all costs Rejects rules, rituals of brahmans

Followers become Jains

Vegitarians Tried to imitate Maharivas life, reject worldly possesions

Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama, 7th Cen BC

Grew up a rich prince
Prophecy said hed never be king father tried to protect him, isolate him from pain/suffering Siddhartha saw an old man, then saw sick, hungry, dead person overwhelmed Abandoned family, became an ascetic (extreme rejection of luxury) Sat beneath a bodhi tree, waiting/meditated for 49 days
Enlightenment Buddha

Buddha

Believed in 4 noble truths

Acknowledge suffering People suffer because of ambition and desire To remove suffering, remove ambition and desire Do this by following the 8-fold path
Correct: understanding, wishes, speech, conduct, employment, effort, kindness, meditation When accomplished Enlightenment or Nirvana

Buddha

Nirvana similar to Moshka

Achieved with out Brahmans, personal achievement Rejected idea only male Brahmans could read Vedas Disciples shaved heads, wore yellow garments, traveled w/begging bowl

Buddhism divides; some follow personal example of Buddha, some believe he has divine qualities
Develop ideas about heaven and hell later

Early Indian Empires

Main Idea
The Mauryas and Guptas created powerful empires that united much of India, while trading kingdoms thrived in southern India.

Key Questions

How did the Mauryan Empire unify much of India, and who were its key rulers?

What regional kingdoms ruled India after the collapse of the Mauryan Empire?
Which key rulers and events shaped the Gupta Empire?

The Mauryan Empire

Many small kingdoms existed across India in 300s BC

Each kingdom had own ruler; no central authority united them Magadha a dominant kingdom near Ganges Strong leader, Chandragupta Maurya gained control Began conquering surrounding kingdoms Conquests led to founding of Mauryan empire

Rise of the Mauryan Empire

Alexander the Great
Alexander conquered force in northwest India, 326 BC Did not remain in India long Battle-weary soldiers wanted to return home, soon left India

Alexanders legacy
Alexanders conquest inspired Chandragupta Maurya Seized throne of kingdom of Magadha, 321 BC Began Mauryan empire

Mauryan army
Chandragupta built immense army, 60,000 soldiers Chariots, war elephants Began conquering northern India

Extended empire
Defeated Seleucus I, 305 BC Mauryan empire controlled northern India, 303 BC Also controlled much of what is now Afghanistan

Mauryan Rule
Strong government

Like Qin, Han rulers, Chandragupta Maurya established centralized government to control empire, crush resistance
Relied on brilliant adviser Kautilya, Brahmin, member of the priest caste

Arthasastra

Manual for statecraft, thought to be written by Kautilya Arthasastra called for strict state control Also called for use of spies, even assassination

Empire divided

Chandragupta divided empire into districts, appointed loyalists to rule them Organized bureaucracy ran government, spies monitored officials, gathered information, rooted out threats to state

The Mauryan Empire

Megasthenes Greek ambassador visited Mauryan Empire during Chandraguptas reign Wrote about his observations Pataliputra Greatest city, Mauryan capital: magnificent palaces, temples, parks Government controlled economy

Described land of prosperity

Emperor owned land, rent money from farmers funded government

Rule under Ashoka

Chandragupta gave up throne, 301 BC, became Jainist monk

Son became emperor, followed by grandson Ashoka

Mauryan empire reached height under Ashoka Through warfare empire expanded, included most of India

Kalinga campaign

Violence of fighting at Kalinga appalled Ashoka Abandoned policy of conquest and converted to Buddhism Began to promote, spread policy of right conduct, Buddhism Supported Buddhist missionaries, worked to improve lives of his people

The Mauryan Empire

Mauryan empire began to decline following death of Ashoka, 232 BC Sons battled for power, central control weakened Distant provinces began to slip away

Last Mauryan emperor killed by one of generals, 184 BC

Mauryan empire lasted 140 years, then collapsed

Regional Kingdoms
As the Mauryan Empire collapsed, India again divided into many regional kingdoms. These kingdoms differed in the north and south. North India
Invaders from Central Asia established new dynasties Many had been displaced by expansion of China

The Greeks
Greek invaders from what is now Afghanistan formed Greco-Indian dynasties Introduced Greek art forms to India, influenced local styles

The Kushans
Conquered much of north during first century AD Restored some of grandeur of Mauryan Empire to region Kushan dynasty fell, AD 250

South India
Powerful kingdoms
n n n

Developed in India south of Deccan Plateau

Andhra kingdom expanded across south, central India, 100s BC

Controlled region until about AD 300

Other kingdoms
n n n

In far south, small kingdoms had ruled for some time Chera, Chola, Pandya, collectively called Tamil kingdoms Carried on active sea trade with Southeast Asia, other regions

Sea Trade
n n n

Brought kingdoms wealth, developed sophisticated culture

Madurai, capital of Pandya kingdom, became center of Tamil poetry Poetry was filled with descriptions of vibrant society of southern India

The Gupta Empire

India remained divided into small kingdoms for about 400 years. Then around AD 320, the Gupta dynasty took over northern India. Under the Gupta, northern India was reunited, Indian society prospered, and the religion of Hinduism grew in popularity. Rise of Gupta Empire Like Mauryan, Gupta dynasty
rose to power in region of Magadha Founder was Chandra Gupta I From base in Magadha, Chandra conquered neighboring lands, brought much of northern India under Gupta control

India under Gupta Rule

Gupta rule less centralized Divided main part of empire into units Royal officials governed each unit Governed through local rulers in distant conquered areas Local rulers had to pay tribute

Gupta power expanded under the heirs of Chandra Gupta I, and the empire reached its height under Chandra Gupta II.

The Gupta Empire

Chandra Gupta II, ruled from AD 375 to 415

Further expanded empire, strengthened economy

Reign was period of prosperity, cultural achievement Chinese Buddhist monk, Faxian, traveled to India Described empire as rich, prosperous, and punishments fair

The Gupta Empire

Support of Hinduism
Buddhism prospered, spread during period between Mauryan, Gupta empires Hinduism lost popularity during this period Under Guptas, Hinduism became main religion Rulers supported building Hindu temples, promoted revival of writings Buddhism began to lose influence during this period

End of Gupta Rule

Began to weaken, late 400s Loose Gupta control allowed some parts of empire to break away Central Asian nomads, White Huns, began invading India

Weakened Empire
Problems disrupted trade Gupta military efforts to defend empire drained treasury Gupta rule ended, 550 Again India divided into small, regional kingdoms

Contrast

How did the reigns of Chandragupta and Ashoka differ?

Answer(s): Chandraguptastrict state control, spies, conquest; Ashokanonviolence, public works, Buddhist teachings

Identify Cause and Effect

Why did peoples from Central Asia invade northern India during the period after the collapse of the Mauryan Empire?
Answer(s): They had been displaced from China by invasions of Qin and Han.

Identify Supporting Details How did the Guptas rule their empire?
Answer(s): ruled central part directly with royal officials; ruled outlying areas indirectly through local rulers