GT Comb10

October 17, 2008 IC Engines Lab I I T Madras 1 of 70

• Combustion is the most important process in a
GTP.
• In the combustion chamber chemical energy in
the form of fuel is added.
• Fuel combining with oxygen in the air releases
chemical energy in the form of thermal energy
(heat).
• This heat energy is converted into work in the
turbine.
• The losses in the combustion chamber is critical
since it has a direct effect on the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.

• Combustion system is not completely yet
amenable to theoretical analysis.
• However, in the recent past lot of
theoretical analysis have been carried out
using CFD.
• Even though theoretical analysis can give
first cut in the design, it can be perfected by
testing the component independently and
modifying it in the light of the test results.

In the gas turbine combustion system following
points are to be addressed.
• injection and vapourization of fuel
• mixing of fuel vapour and air with the formation
of turbulence zones.
• Release of energy from fuel by bond breaking.
• Provision to sustain the flame.
The above factors involve both aerodynamics
and thermo-chemical considerations.

• However, it may be noted that during the
last four or five decades, gas turbine
combustor technology has developed
gradually and continuously rather than
through any dramatic change.
• Despite this, the challenge to ingenuity in
design is greater than ever before.
• New concepts and technology are still
needed to satisfy current and projected
pollutant emission regulations.

• Further, there is a growing emphasis on
engines that can utilize a much broader
range of fuels.
• With this in mind, we will discuss the
general principles and broad correlations
which have been established over the
years for the design of gas turbine
combustion system.

• There are three main theories:
(i) Carbon preferential burning
(ii) Hydrogen preferential burning
(iii) Hydroxylation
• But modern theory is based on the
statistics of probability and chemical
kinetics.

• From kinetic theory it is known that the
individual molecules can be assigned an average
velocity.
• However, there are highly fast moving and slow
moving molecules.
• For combustion reaction to take place the fuel
vapour molecules should collide with oxygen
molecules.
• The collision must be so strong that the
molecules are broken down into atoms and
radicals.
• It is also known that molecular
activity increase with raise in
temperature.
• Therefore, increasing the temperature
increases the probability of collision
of higher velocity molecules.
• This will be increase the intensity of
combustion.
• Acceleration of the reaction is brought
about by chain branching and retarded by
chain breaking.
• H and O are the free radicals of fuel and
air and they may act as the chain carriers.
• Chain carriers may be destroyed through a
surface reaction.
• In normal combustion, the relationship
between chain branching and chain
breaking is such that the reaction proceeds
at a constant rate.
The process of combustion in a gas
turbine combustion involves the
following four important steps:
(i) formation of reactive mixture
(ii) ignition
(iii) flame propagation
(iv) cooling of combustion products with air

• Under ideal situations, each of these steps
would be completed separately before
proceeding to the next step.
• However, space restrictions under the
normal operating conditions do not permit
the achievement of these ideal conditions.
• The intimate and uniform mixing of fuel
and air is an essential prerequisite to
complete the combustion process.

• The closer this mixing approaches
molecular dimensions; there is a better
possibility for complete combustion.
• To achieve this, the fuel should be
atomized first, thus providing for good
distribution with large surface area for
evaporation at the same time.

Fig.10.1 Typical stability curve

• The exit temperature of the
combustion
• The exit temperature distribution
• Flame stabilization
• Formation of carbon deposits
(coking) to be avoided
• Stability of combustion

• Pressure loss
• Cold losses
• Hot losses.
Fig.10.2 Variation of pressure loss factor

• Pressure losses are accounted by means of a
factor called PLF (Pressure Loss Factor)
∆p0
PLF = 2
m / 2 ρ1 Am
2
• The above equation depicts hot losses
Total PLF = Cold losses + Hot losses

 T02 
= K1 + K 2  − 1
 T01 

• Not the combustion but the intensity of
combustion is important.
• This is determined by the rate of
reaction.
• There is no universal rate equation.

• The size of the combustion chamber is determined
primarily by the rate of heat release required.
• The nominal heat release rate can be found from m
f Hc, where m is the mass flow rate, f the fuel-air
ratio and Hc the net calorific value of the fuel.
• Enough has been said for the reader to appreciate
that the larger the volume which can be provided
the easier it will be to achieve a low pressure drop,
high efficiency, good outlet temperature
distribution and satisfactory stability
characteristics.
• The design problem is also eased by an increase in
the pressure and temperature of the air entering the
chamber, for two reasons.
• Firstly, an increase will reduce the time necessary
for the `preparation' of the fuel and air mixture
(evaporation of droplets etc.) making more time
available for the combustion process itself.
• Note that since the compressor delivery temperature
is a function of the compressor delivery pressure, the
pressure (usually expressed in atmospheres) is an
adequate measure of both.

• Secondly, it may be noted that the
combustion chamber pressure is
important because of its effect on the
rate at which the chemical reactions
proceed.
• An indication of the nature of this
dependence can be obtained from
chemical kinetics i.e. kinetic theory
applied to reacting gases.
• By calculating the number of
molecular collisions per unit time and
unit volume which have an energy
exceeding a certain activation value
E, it is possible to obtain the
following expression for the ratio at
which a simple bimolecular gas
reaction proceeds.
1 −3 −E
Rate of reaction α m j mk ρ σ T M
R0T
2 2 2 2
E

∀ ρ and T have their usual meaning and the
other symbols denote:
mj, mk : local concentrations of
molecules of species, j and k
σ : mean molecular diameter
M : mean molecular weight
E : activation energy
R0 : universal gas constant

• Substituting for ρ in terms of p and T we
can for our purpose simplify the
expression to
Rate of energy α p2 f(T)
• Now T is maintained at a high value by
having an approximately stoichiometric
mixture in the primary zone.
• However, we are concerned here with the
independent variable p.

• It is not to be expected that the
theoretical exponent 2 will apply to the
complex set of reactions occurring
when a hydrocarbon fuel is burnt in air.
• Experiments with homogeneous
mixtures in stoichiometric proportions
suggest that it should be 1.8.

• At first sight it appears therefore that the
design problem should be eased as the
pressure is increased according to the law
p1.8.
• In fact there is reason to believe that under
design operating conditions the chemical
reaction rate is not a limiting factor.
• In an actual combustion chamber where
physical mixing processes play such an
important role, an exponent of unity is
more realistic.
• This is not to say that under extreme
conditions - say at high altitude - the
performance will not fall off more in
accordance with the p1.8 law.
• A quantity known as the combustion
intensity has been introduced to take
account of the foregoing effects.
• One definition used is
Heat release rate
Combustion intensity =
Combustion volume × Pressure

• However, it is defined, certainly the lower
the value of the combustion intensity the
easier it is to design a combustion system
which will meet all the desired
requirements.
• It is quite inappropriate to compare the
performance of different systems on the
basis of efficiency, pressure loss etc. if
they are operating with widely differing
orders of combustion intensity.
• In aircraft systems, the combustion
intensity is in the region 2-5 x 104
kW/m3 atm, while in industrial gas
turbines the figure may be a tenth of
this owing to the larger volume of
combustion space available and to the
fact that when a heat-exchanger is
employed a smaller heat release is
required.
• The combustion efficiency is
computed from the chemical analysis
of the gases.
• This is not easy, as not only it is
difficult to obtain representative
samples from the high velocity
stream, but also, owing to the high
air-fuel ratios used, the constituents
to be measured are of a very small
proportion of the whole sample.
• Ordinary apparatus, such as the
Orsat, is not adequate for this purpose
and special methods have been
evolved.
• If an overall combustion efficiency is
all that is required, however, and not
an investigation state of the
combustion process at any stage, it is
possible to use an efficiency defined
by the energy balance equation.
Since the mean specific heat may be
assumed to be same for both the
actual and theoretical temperature
rise, this efficiency may be written as
Actual total − Head temperature rise

Combustion efficiency =
Theoretical total − Head temperature rise

• The actual temperature-rise is found by
direct measurement at the inlet and outlet
of the chamber, while the theoretical
temperature rise may be found from the
already available curves, using measured
values of air-fuel ratio and inlet total-head
temperature.
• Now this expression for efficiency is the
result of an energy balance, i.e. a balance
of such terms as ma Cp T0.

• Since there is always in practice a
variation in velocity as well as a
variation in temperature across the
section of a combustion chamber, it is
necessary to use, not the ordinary
arithmetic mean of number of
readings across a section, but what is
known as the weighted mean .

There are two types
(ii) Can combustion system
(used with centrifugal compressors)
(iv)Annular combustion system
(used with axial flow compressors)

• Complete combustion of the fuel must be
achieved
• The total pressure loss must be minimum
• Carbon deposits must not be formed
under any expected condition of
operation
• Ignition must be reliable and
accomplished with ease over wide range
of atmospheric conditions
• Temperature and velocity
distribution at turbine inlet must be
controlled
• The volume and weight of the
combustor must be kept within
reasonable limits
• Reliability and endurance should be
ascertained
Fig.10.3 Typical combustion chamber
Fig.10.4 Flow pattern in the primary zone

Types of Combustion Chamber

View from Compressor Exit
View from Combustor Exit
A 20 degree Slice

Anatomy

If you make a surgery on
this 20 degree slice

You will first get a prediffuser

Dome
Number of holes : 790

Diameter : 1 mm each

Flare
Number of holes : 678

Diameter : 1 mm each

Outer Annulus Wall with Primary, Dilution
and Film Cooling Holes
Number of cooling rings : 5

Total number of holes : 142
Diameter : 2 to 2.25 mm
Primary hole diameter : 21 mm

Dilution hole diameter : 20 mm
Number of holes : 36 (primary)
18 (dilution)
Inner Annulus Wall with Primary, Dilution
and Film Cooling Holes
Primary hole diameter : 21 mm

Dilution hole diameter : 15 mm
Number of holes : 36 (primary)
36 (dilution)
Number of cooling rings : 5

Total number of holes : 103
Diameter : 2 to 2.25 mm

Geometry under consideration
Grid Distribution

Meshed Geometry

Dome with 790 Holes

Flare with 678 Holes

Velocity distribution in the midplane
Total pressure distribution in the midplane
Flow through cooling ring holes, dome and flare
A
A – Zoomed view of velocity vectors in the cooling rings

• Some of the problems which have so far
not been mentioned but which are none
the less important.
• These are concerned with
(i) flame-tube cooling,
(ii) fuel injection,
(iii) ignition,
(iv) the use of cheaper fuels and
(v) pollution.

GT Comb10

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Fig.10.2 Variation of pressure loss factor

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• The above equation depicts hot losses

Total PLF = Cold losses + Hot losses

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Actual total − Head temperature rise

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Number of holes : 790

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Number of holes : 678

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Number of cooling rings : 5

Primary hole diameter : 21 mm

Primary hole diameter : 21 mm

Number of cooling rings : 5

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