The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Classical Theory: The position and momentum of a moving particle can be determined with very high accuracy at the same time. If we consider electron to be a wave i.e. if electron is exhibiting dual nature (wave and particle), is it possible to know the exact position Click toelectron in subtitle style of the edit Master space? Answer exits in Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

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The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

According to this principle it is impossible to specify precisely and simultaneously the values of both members of particular pairs of physical variables that describe the behavior of an atomic system. Uncertainty Principle in 3 different forms of physical variables:
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h x x p 2 h Et 2

Uncertainty in Position : Uncertainty in Momentum:

p x

h x x p 2
The relation means that a component of the momentum of a particle cannot be precisely specified without our loss of all knowledge of the corresponding component, of its position at that time. Or we can say particle cannot be precisely localized in a particular direction without our loss of all knowledge of its momentum component in that direction. The product of the uncertainties of the simultaneously measurable values of corresponding position and momentum components is at least of the order of magnitude of h.

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h Et 2
Above equation means that an energy determination that has an accuracy E must occupy its state, at least a time interval t ~ h/ 2E; thus if a system maintains a particular state of motion not longer than a time t, the energy of the system in that state is uncertain by at least the amount E ~ h/ 2t, since t is the longest time interval available for the energy determination.
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Similarly, above equation means, that the precise measurement of the angular position of a particle in an orbit carries with its all loss of the knowledge of other component, angular momentum perpendicular to the plane of the orbit at that time.

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The problem of uncertainty is a logical consequence of the dual behavior of matter. Question: Why this uncertainty has not been found to be relevant in the macroscopic word? Answer: The smallness of h makes the uncertainty principle of interest primarily in connection with systems of atomic size therefore we do not feel the effect of this inequality in our everyday experience.

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Example:
Let a tiny particle of mass: 10-6gm If its position is determined with in an accuracy of: 10-6cm Then according to Uncertainty Principle, maximum uncertainty should be in the value of its velocity: 6 10-16cm/sec However this value the accuracies with which one can determine the velocity of the particle.

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In de Broglie wave group one can not see the center representing the position of the particle very easily but one can measure precisely the wavelength of its component waves related to bodies momentum.
q

But if the de Broglie wave group is very narrow, one can find out the position of the center while one can never measure the wavelength.
q

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Proof of Uncertainty Principle:

i.

Position and momentum uncertainty principle:

Let there is a moving particle Moving particle can be considered as a carrying group of waves (i.e. de Broglie wave group rather than a localized entity) Due to absence of localized entity there is always a limit to accuracy in determining its particle properties.

Resultant of waves
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Let us consider two waves of angular frequencies 1and 2 and propagation vector k1 and k2 travelling along a single direction

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According to the principle of superposition, the resultant wave is:

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Loop formed will travel with group velocity: vg Group velocity = Particle velocity So loop formed is equivalent to the position of the particle Position can be anywhere between 2 nodes so there is uncertainty in the position of the particle. So the error in the measurement of the position of the particle = distance between two nodes. Node will be formed when

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If x1 and x2 represent the position of two successive nodes, then at any instant t,

Subtracting second from first,

So error in the measurement of the position of the particle is:

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This is the desired uncertainty principle.

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Experimental evidence of uncertainty principle Heisenberg -ray microscope:

Let think of an ideal experiment by which we may try to measure both the position and momentum of an electron: a high powered microscope with a suitable lighting arrangement As the photons from the source S collide with the electrons, some of these bounce into the microscope and enable the observer to see the flash of light and thus to find out 4/29/12 position and momentum of the electron at the both the same time.

Experimental setup for Heisenberg -ray microscope

But practically there are two fundamental limitations to such an experiment.

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i.

Accuracy in determining the position of electron by a microscope is limited by the laws of optics. According to optics, the resolving power of a microscope is given as: x = / (2 sin) Resolving power of a microscope: is the minimum distance between two lines which can be resolve by that microscope

x: minimum distance between the points in the field of view which can be distinguished as separate : Wavelength of the scattered photon : Semi-vertical angel of the cone, light coming from the illuminated electron. 4/29/12

x = / (2 sin) to make x small, radiation of very short wavelength such as X-rays or -rays should be used. thus x will be the error or uncertainty in the measurement of the position of electron and is given by Due to interaction of electron with X-rays or -rays photon will result in the change of momentum of the electron because of its recoil. Change in momentum of the electron can be calculated by using Compton effect:
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ii.

Let apply conservation of momentum along the x-axis: The component of momentum along x-axis transferred by the photon to the electron is given by

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Inside the microscope the angle may vary from (90-) to (90+), so spread in the x component of the momentum:

Hence the uncertainty in the momentum is given as:

Multiplying x and px or
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Application of Uncertainty Principle: Quantum mechanics gives a new concept of particle: Wave is supposed to be associated with any particle: resulting in a certain avoidable uncertainty. But Uncertainty principle explains a large number of facts which could not be explained by classical mechanics.

Non-existence of free electrons in the nucleus:

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The rest mass of an electron is (me) = 9.11 10-31 kg The diameter of a nucleus is 2 10-14 m If we think that electron is confined within a nucleus, the uncertainty in its position may not exceed by 10-14 m. The corresponding uncertainty in the electrons momentum will be = h/(2x) p = 6.62 10-34/(23.14 210-14)
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The kinetic energy of the electron of mass m: K.E. = p2/(2m) = (5.275 10-21)2 /(29.110-31) Joule; 1Joule=Kgm2/sec2 = (5.275 10-21)2 /(29.110-311.610-19) eV 97 MeV But experimental data reveal that no electrons in the atom has energy greater than 4 MeV. This clearly reveals that electrons do not exist inside the 4/29/12 nucleus.