Chapter 10

Leadership & Organizational Change

Motivation

Motivation

inner force that activates or moves a person toward achievement of a goal.

Needs Drives or motivates Achievement of goals

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Motivation

Physical needs

innate or primary needs (food, water, shelter).

acquired needs, those we learn in response to culture or environment (esteem, affection, power).

Psychological needs

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Motivation

Positive goal

desirable & the object of directed behavior.

undesirable & behavior is directed away from it.

Negative goal

Both needs & goals are interdependent. Needs & goals are constantly changing.

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Motivation & Work Performance

Individuals who are blocked in attempts to satisfy their needs may exhibit:

Withdrawal Aggression Substitution Compensation Revert or regress Repression Projection Rationalization

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Theories of Motivation
Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory McClellands Achievement-PowerAffiliation Theory Herzbergs Two-factor Theory Expectancy Theory Reinforcement Theory

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Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory

People are motivated by their desire to satisfy specific needs:

Physiological needs of the body to sustain life. Safety protection of individuals from physical or psychological harm. Social needs for love, affection, belonging. Esteem feelings of self-respect & self-worth. Self-actualization desire to fulfill ones potential.

Prepotent need a need that is dominant over all others.

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Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory

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McClellands Achievement-PowerAffiliation Theory

All people have a need:

to achieve for power for affiliation

Achievement desire to do something better or more efficiently than it was done before. Power a concern for influencing people. Affiliation desire to be liked by others & to establish or maintain friendly relationships.

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Motivators
Factors for job satisfaction Related to content of the job

Achievement Recognition Responsibility Advancement The work itself Potential for growth

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Increase in Motivators can be used to increase job satisfaction Absence of Maintenance or Hygiene factors will cause job dissatisfaction Increase in Maintenance or Hygiene factors will not increase job satisfaction

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Expectancy Theory
Explains behavior in terms of an individuals goals, choices, & expectations of achieving these goals. Assumes people can:

Determine the outcomes they prefer. Make realistic estimates of their chances. If they believe their efforts will be rewarded. If they value the rewards that are offered (valence).
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People are motivated to work:

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Reinforcement Theory
Associated with work by Skinner Also called operant conditioning or behavior modification. Consequences of past actions influence future actions in a cyclical learning process. Reinforced behavior will be repeated; behavior that is not reinforced is less likely to be repeated.

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Job Satisfaction
An individuals feelings & beliefs about their job. Components of job satisfaction:

Personality Values Work situation Social influence

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Job Satisfaction

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB)

Positive, voluntary, behaviors that enhance organizational efficiency.

commitment to an organization because one is happy to be working for the organization, believes in the organization, & wants to do what is best for the organization. commitment to an organization only because the cost of leaving is too great.
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Affective Organizational Commitment

Continuous Organizational Commitment

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Leadership
Process of influencing activities of an individual or group toward achieving organizational goals. Effective leader can influence people to strive willingly for group objectives.

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Traditional Power Structure

Power

means by which a leader influences the behaviors of followers.

derived from position in an organization. comes from personal attributes & expertise.

Position power

Personal power

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Bases of Power

Legitimate

comes from formal position in organization

comes from leaders ability to reward others comes from leaders authority to punish those who do not comply

Reward

Coercive

Expert

held by leaders who are viewed as being competent in their job

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Bases of Power

Referent

based on identification of followers with a leader

based on leaders possession of or access to information that others perceive as valuable. based on the leaders connections with influential or important persons.

Information

Connection

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Evolving Power Structure

Title & rank will be less important factors in success. More important will be knowledge, skills, and sensitivity to mobilize people and motivate them to do their best.

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Philosophies of Human Nature

McGregors Theory X & Theory Y Theory X
Work distasteful to people People are not ambitious People have little capacity for creativity Most people must be closely controlled People must be coerced to achieve objectives

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Philosophies of Human Nature

McGregors Theory X & Theory Y Theory Y
Work is natural as play People are self motivated Creativity is common among people Motivation at esteem and self actualization levels

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Philosophies of Human Nature

Argyriss Immaturity-Maturity Theory
Immaturity
Passive Dependence Behave in few ways Shallow interests Short time perspective Lack of self control

Maturity
Increased activity Independence Behave in many ways Deep, strong interests Long time perspective Control over self

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Leadership Effectiveness
Effective leaders influence others. Formal leaders formal authority to exert influence on others. Informal leaders may have no formal job authority, yet may exert considerable influence because of special skills or talents.

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Trait Concepts in Leadership

Characteristics for effective leaders:

Character Charisma Commitment Communication Competence Courage Discernment Focus Generosity Initiative Listening

Passion Positive attitude Problem solving Relationships Responsibility Security Self-discipline Servanthood Teachability Vision

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Trait Concepts in Leadership

Strongest leadership relationship traits:

Intelligence Task-relevant knowledge Dominance Self-confidence Energy/activity level Tolerance for stress Integrity & honesty Emotional maturity

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Basic Leadership Styles

Basic styles:
Autocratic makes most decisions. Laissez-faire allows the group to make the decisions. Democratic guides & encourages the group to make decisions.

Different leadership styles are effective in different situations.

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University of Michigan Leadership Studies

Designed to characterize leadership effectiveness. Major concepts of leadership:

Employee orientation emphasis on the human relations part of their job. Product orientation emphasis on performance & the more technical characteristics of work.

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University of Michigan Leadership Studies

High-production supervisor traits:

Receive general rather than close supervision from their superiors Spend more time in supervision Give general rather than close supervision of their employees Are employee oriented rather than production oriented.

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University of Michigan Leadership Studies

Management styles:

Exploitive autocratic employees motivated by fear, threats, & punishment. Benevolent autocratic - employees make certain minor decisions, & upward communication is generally ignored. Consultative information flows up & down, but all major decisions come from the top. Participative - operates on the basis of trust & responsibility.
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Ohio State Leadership Studies

Dimensions of leadership behavior:

Consideration behavior that:

Expresses friendship Develops mutual trust & respect Develops strong interpersonal relationships with subordinates

Initiating structure behavior that defines work & establishes well-defined communication patterns & clear relationships between the leader & subordinate.

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Ohio State Leadership Studies

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Leadership Grid

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Situational & Contingency Approaches

Emphasizes leadership skills, behavior, & roles dependent on the situation. Behavior of effective leaders in one setting may be substantially different from that in another.

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Leadership Continuum

Forces affecting appropriate leadership:

Forces in the manager Forces in subordinates or nonmanagers Forces in the situation

Forces differ in strength & interaction in different situations. Manager employs a variety of approaches, which are dependent on the forces operating in a particular situation.

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Leadership Continuum
Encourages participative approaches to decision making. Benefits of participative styles:

Raise employees motivational level Increase willingness to change Improve quality of decisions Develop teamwork & morale Further the individual development of employees

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Contingency Approach

Major situational variables:

Leader-member relations personal relations with member of the group. Task structure- degree of structure in the task assigned to the group. Position power authority & power a leaders position provides.

Favorableness of a situation degree to which the situation enables the leader to exert influence over the group.
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Leader Effectiveness Model

Task behavior the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties & responsibilities of an individual or group. Relationship behavior the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multi-way communication. Readiness desire for achievement based on:

Challenging but attainable goals Willingness & ability to accept responsibility Education or experience & skills relevant to a particular task
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Path-Goal Leadership Model

Focuses on the leaders effect on the subordinates motivation to perform. Assumes that individuals react rationally in pursuing certain goals because those goals ultimately result in highly valued payoffs to the individual.

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Path-Goal Leadership Model

Types of leadership behavior:

Directive provides guidelines, setting definite performance standards, & controlling behavior to ensure adherence to rules. Supportive being friendly & showing concern for subordinates well-being & needs. Achievement oriented setting challenging goals & seeking to improve performance. Participative sharing information, consulting with employees, & emphasizing group decision making.
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Path-Goal Leadership Model

Situational factors:
Locus of control tendency of people to rely on internal or external sources. Characteristics of the work environment structure & complexity of the task.

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Transformational Leadership
Inspires followers to become motivated to work toward organizational rather than personal gain. Occurs when followers:

Trust the leader Perform behaviors that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals Perform at a high level

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Transactional Leadership
Focuses on clarifying roles and responsibilities Uses rewards and punishment to achieve goals

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Transformational Leadership

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Emerging Leadership Competencies

Emotional intelligence

extent to which a person is in tune with their own feelings & the feelings of others. ability to determine the requirements for leadership in a particular situation & select the appropriate response.
ability to learn & adapt to change.
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Social intelligence

Metacognition

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Implications of Leadership Theories

Successful leaders have either:

Analyzed situational factors & adapted their leadership style to them. Altered the factors to match their style.

No one best style of leadership exists. Leadership is a function of forces in the leader, the followers, & the situation.

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Implications of Leadership Theories

Effective leaders:
Develop & provide a complete vision Earn & return trust Listen & communicate effectively Persevere when others give up

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Implications of Leadership Theories

Keys to effective leadership:

Develop a vision Trust your subordinates Encourage risk Simplify Keep your cool Invite dissent

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Comparison of Management & Leadership

Management:

About coping with complexities. Organizes & staffs people to achieve goals. Controls people by pushing them in the right direction.
About coping with change. Focuses on aligning people toward goals. Motivates people by satisfying basic human needs.
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Leadership:

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Comparison of Management & Leadership

Managers are appointed to their position. Leaders may be appointed, or they may emerge from the group. Leaders are able to influence without having formal authority.

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Personal & Organizational Change

Change

the movement from one state to another.

Effective managers & leaders accept that chance should & will occur.

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Personal Change
Examination of ones personal characteristics Development and execution of plans to change one or more of those characteristics

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Personal Change

Coveys Seven Habits

Be proactive Begin with the end in mind Put first things first Think win/win Seek first to understandthen to be understood Synergize Sharpen the saw

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Organizational Change

Substantive modification to some part of the organization Forces include:

Competition Governmental laws & regulations Economic & political pressures Technology Employee attitudes Workforce demographics Introduction of new equipment
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Organizational Change

Change Agent

person who initiates change.

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Successful Change Guidelines

Who Moved My Cheese Guidelines:

Change happens Anticipate change Monitor change Adapt to change quickly Change Enjoy change Be ready to change quickly & enjoy it again

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