Lecture 8

Network Protocols - TCP/IP

1
 Importance of Protocols
✘ Standards define how devices communicate with
each other and access media
✘ Once a standard is implemented in software it
becomes a protocol
✘ Protocols define how devices and applications
communicate
✘ The protocols on a network affects the way in which
it functions and its ability to interface with other
networks
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 Protocol Suites
✘ Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) –
the most common of all network protocol suites, is the ‘standard’
in modern networks, used for communication on the Internet
✘ Internet Packet eXchange/Sequence Packet eXchange
(IPX/SPX) – developed by Novell, ensures communication
between Netware operating systems, provides similar functionality
to TCP/IP, can be routed but only to communicate with other
Netware networks
✘ AppleTalk – popular networking protocol in American
educational establishments, used for communicating between
devices using the Mac OS

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 TCP/IP Suite
✘ Developed for use on the Internet for the American
Department of Defence
✘ Two Parts:
✘ TCP – responsible for connection oriented communication using
error checking
✘ IP – implemented in the addressing system used to identify devices
✘ Although designed for the Internet it is used to build LANs,
WANs and MANs
✘ Most widely used protocol suite, used within Unix, Windows
and Macintosh platforms
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OSI TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Session Presentation Application

SNMP
TFTP SMTP
FTP LPD NFS (Simple
(Trivial (Simple
(File (Line (Network Network X
Telnet File Mail Others
Transfer Printer File Managem Window
Transfer Transfer
Protocol) Daemon) System) ent
Protocol) Protocol)
Protocol)
Transport

TCP UDP
(Transmission Control Protocol) (User Datagram Protocol)
Network

ICMP ARP RARP

BootP IP
(Internet Control (Address Resolution (Reverse Address
(Bootstrap Protocol) (Internet Protocol)
Message Protocol) Protocol) Resolution Protocol)
Physical Data Link

FDDI
Ethernet Token Ring (Fibre Distributed Frame Relay Others
Data Interface)

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 Features of TCP/IP
✘ Interoperability – has become the industry ‘standard’, Netware
have replaced two of its proprietary protocols (IPX and SPX)
with TCP and IP
✘ Flexibility – the multiple protocols within the suite allow a
variety of implementations, eg the use of either TCP (reliable
but slow) or UDP (fast and efficient, but not as reliable)
✘ Multivendor Support – almost all network software supports
it, eg Apple, DEC, IBM, Novell, Microsoft and Sun

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 Internet Protocol
✘ One of the most important protocols
✘ Developed to function within a UNIX environment in the days
of ARPAnet
✘ Uses connectionless delivery – it does not guarantee delivery
✘ Main purpose is to provide logical addressing through the use of
an IP address
✘ Uses IP address to route information between networks,
therefore every device requires a unique address

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 Understanding IP Addressing
✘ Address consists of 4 bytes = 32 bits
✘ Address is quoted as four dotted decimal numbers such as
134.220.198.170 = 10000110.11011100.11000110.10101010
✘ IP address consists of two parts the network portion, and
the host portion
✘ The network portion is used to route packets between
networks
✘ The host portion identifies the particular device on the host
network

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 Class Addresses
✘ There are five classes of IP address
✘ The class of address is identified by the first bits
of the address
✘ Three classes are used for networks. The last
two are reserved for special purposes (Class D is
for multicast, and Class E is for experimentation
and future use)
✘ See following diagram for Classes A to C

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 Class A to Class C
Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Byte 4
Class A
0 Network Host
Class B
10 Network Host

Class C
110 Network Host

Class A – First eight bits identify network, the first bit is fixed at 0, giving 27
(128) networks, and 224 (16,777,316) hosts
Class B – First 16 bits identify network, the first two bits are fixed at 10, giving
214 (16,384) networks, and 216 (65,536) hosts
Class C – First 21 bits identify network, the first three bits are fixed at 110,
giving 221 (2,097,152) networks and 28 (256) hosts
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Understanding IP Addressing (2)
✘ For any organisation the Network portion of the address
remains fixed, the network administrator can assign the host
address
✘ Assignment can be manual or through Dynamic Host
Configuration
✘ The total number of addresses in this system is a
mathematical possible 4,294,467,295
✘ However, wastage in Class B (networks not using all the
hosts numbers they could – this problem partially solved
through ‘Ciderised’ addressing) plus proliferation of the
Internet means we are running out of IP addresses
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 IP Subnets
✘ Larger classes of networks (A and B) are usually divided in to
smaller networks
✘ This is achieved by dividing up the host portion of the address
✘ This process is known as subnetting
✘ A ‘subnet mask’ uses some of the bits from the host address to
create subnets
✘ The number of bits used determines the number of subnets
which are generated
✘ The remaining bits in the host portion identify the number of
host IP addresses in each subnet
✘ <network portion><subnet portion><host portion>

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 IP Version 6
✘ Current IP Address = 4 x 8-Bit
4,294,467,295 addresses
✘ Version 6 IP Address = 8 x 16-Bit
3 x1038 approx addresses
✘ This ‘should provide sufficient addresses for our future
needs’ – however, it is suggested that before long even the
light switches in our homes will need their own IP addresses
✘ Format – hexadecimal numbers separated by colons,
4718:25E1:4450:C287:0018:52F3:B5C2:001F

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 Address Resolution Protocol
✘ Within an Ethernet network, the physical address (MAC address) is
necessary to provide intercommunication between devices
✘ It is not always possible for a source device to know the physical address
of a destination device
✘ ARP provides a service of matching an IP address to a MAC address
✘ ARP broadcasts a request for the NAC address of a device with a
particular IP address, and that device responds by sending back its MAC
address
✘ This allows the source device to send to a specific MAC address without
having to broadcast all messages (and slowing down the network)

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Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
✘ The opposite of the ARP – provides the IP address
for a device whose MAC address is known
✘ Typically used in networks using diskless
workstations, these devices can not store their IP
address but have access to the MAC address
✘ A RARP Server responds to the RARP request and
provides an IP address for the device to use
✘ Once the device is turned off the IP address is
available for the RARP server to assign elsewhere
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Internet Control Message Protocol
✘ ICMP is implemented on all TCP/IP networks, providing
messaging that can help with troubleshooting, including
✘ Destination unreachable
✘ Time exceeded
✘ Redirect
✘ Echo
✘ Echo reply
✘ Information request
✘ Information reply
✘ Address mask request

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 Transport Protocols
✘ Transmission Control Protocol – TCP uses checksums which
are added to data packets to aid error checking, also uses
sequence numbering to identify the order in which packets
were sent, destination devices acknowledges correct receipt
(otherwise requests re-transmission), slows down the
network
✘ User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – uses a connectionless
transportation system, does not use error checking or
sequence numbering, assumes that other protocols will
handle the error checking, only concerned with getting the
data to the Transport Layer of the destination device, as it
does not use error checking it requires few network resources
(uses less bandwidth than TCP)
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 Application Layer Protocols
✘ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – a protocol, a service and an application.
Allows transfer of files between devices. One of the first protocols to be
developed.
✘ Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) – works with UDP to transfer files
across the Internet, requires an acknowledgement of receipt of each
packet before the next is transmitted
✘ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) – transfers email between
devices, uses connection-oriented services of TCP to send and receive, as
it was designed for UNIX not all OS understand SMTP – SMTP
gateways are required to provide translation services

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 Application Layer Protocols (2)
✘ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – used to access HTNL files on the
Internet, provides only two services (requests from client and response
from server), SHTTP provides the encryption and security checks lacking
from the original
✘ Domain Name System (DNS) – manages and centralises domain names
on the Internet, matches a host name to the IP address of a server where
the host is located
✘ Telnet – protocol and application, takes place over a telephone network
(hence name), allows end user to use a computer as a terminal for a
communication session on a remote host (as if they were physically at the
same location), translates commands so that the server can understand
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 Application Layer Protocols (3)
✘ Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) –
dynamically provides IP addresses to devices on a network
which do not have one, a DHCP server provides the address
from a pool either for a limited time or the duration of the
device’s use of the network, has become very useful as the
demand for IP addresses has increased
✘ Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) – allows the
configuration, monitoring and management of network
resources and devices

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 Summary
✘ Importance of Protocols
✘ Protocol Suites
✘ OSI model and TCP/IP
✘ IP Addressing (version 4 and 6)
✘ Address Classes and Subnetting
✘ Network Layer Protocols
✘ Transport Layer Protocols
✘ Application Layer Protocols
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