Superposition

Standing waves

Interference
Diffraction

The Principle of Superposition

When waves pass through each other the outcome is the sum of the individual displacements at that point.

Constructive interference

i.e. yt = y1 + y2 +
Destructive interference

What will the addition (superposition) of these two waves look like?

Harmonic sum

HARMSUM.XLS

Adds waves together to demonstrate the idea of Superposition.

Coherent an important word!

Waves must be coherent for the effects of superposition to be observed.

1) Same frequency.
2) Phase difference must be constant. 3) Roughly equal amplitude. 4) Transverse waves must be substantially polarised in the same direction.

Standing/Stationary waves.
Are produced when two coherent waves meet, travelling in opposite directions.

Standing wave demo

Adds together 2 coherent waves travelling in opposite directions. MOVEWAVE.xls

Standing waves are found to be useful in understanding:

1) Musical instruments.

Plates Pipe

String

Rods

2) Electron Orbitals

Musical Instruments
All musical instruments produce a standing wave. By the superposition of a wave and its reflection. Particular positions in an instrument can be shown to be Nodes and others to be Antinodes e.g. Closed Pipes Air undergoes longitudinal vibration. Fundamental (1st Harmonic) Wavelength, = 4 x l f = v/ F = v/4l

Another possible wave in this pipe is: What is the wavelength of this wave? What is the frequency of this wave? How does this frequency compare with the frequency of the fundamental?

This wave is the 3rd Harmonic.

Draw the next possible wave. What is its frequency?

Which harmonic is it?

Only odd Harmonics are possible with a closed pipe.

Open Ended Pipe

First Harmonic 1) What is the wavelength of this wave? 2) What is the frequency of the 1st Harmonic? Sketch the next two possible waves in this pipe and calculate the possible harmonics. A N A

All harmonics are possible in an open pipe.

Stretched Strings
First Harmonic 1) What is the wavelength of this wave? 2) What is the frequency of the 1st Harmonic? N A N

Sketch the next two possible waves in this string and calculate the possible harmonics.

N.B. the speed of a wave on a stretched string = (T/m)1/2

Rods

N.B. v = (E/d)1/2, where:

E = Youngs modulus d = density of rod

Distinction between travelling and standing waves. Standing wave

No nett energy transfer

Travelling
Energy transfer

Adjacent particles Adjacent particles are in phase. not in phase but have constant phase difference. Adjacent particles All particles have have different same amplitude. amplitudes
MOVEWAVE.xls

2 Source Interference
Youngs slits experiment usually with light.

Produces coherent beams Monochromatic light source

Theory

Wavelength, = ay/d
N.B. 1) y is proportional to 1/a : need a small a (0.5mm) 2) y is proportional to d :- need a large d ( 0.5 5m) 3) y is proportional to wavelength :- the larger the wavelength the greater y

Adding two waves together to form an interference pattern

WAVEADD.xls

Examples and uses of interference.

Non reflecting glass Ray 2 has travelled further than ray 1. Hence ray 1 can be out of phase with 2 to give destructive interference. No energy will be reflected all energy will be transmitted used in bloomed lenses, optically. Oil films In a similar manner, if the extra distance travelled is a whole wavelength, constructive interference will occur colours of oil slicks on water.
Colour seen depends on angle viewed and thickness of film

Measurement of length.

1 metre is defined as:- 1650763.73 wavelengths of a certain line in the line spectrum of Kr. Can use the movement towards each other of two mirrors, counting fringes to measure the standard. an accuracy of 1 in 109 can be achieved. In a similar manner the expansion of a crystal can be measured.

Pulsing T.V. pictures

H.W Study and explain the colours of soap bubbles (in a bath?)

The Diffraction Grating

Is it easy to measure the wavelength of light using the double slit method? explain. Using multiple slits: the distance between slits can be very small, so the angle of diffraction will be large because waves will find another wave antiphase at all angles bar that involving a path difference of n, the fringes will be much sharper.

If the distance between the slits is d. It can be seen that for constructive interference;

/d = sin

or more generally, n/d = sin

The wavelength of light can be determined accurately using a spectrometer. Typically; Monochromatic light is incident normally on a diffraction grating having 3000 lines/cm. The angular separation of the zero order and the 1st order maxima is 10o. Calculate the wavelength of the incident light.
What colour is this light?

What is the greatest order of diffraction maxima possible in the example above?

Diffraction

Large gap not much observable diffraction; most energy passes straight through gap. Small gap most of the energy is diffracted and passes into the geometric shadow.

Practically:

Theoretically:

Constructive interference

Destructive interference

At P a wavelet from AC will interfere constructively with a wavelet from BC, a bright fringe will occur. At Q, wavelets in AC will all find a wavelet in BC half a wavelength different destructive interference will occur.

And more

All wavelets in AX will find a wavelet in XY to interfere with destructively.

Leaving the wavelets in BY to be transmitted to R.

The diffraction pattern will look like:

For the first minima, Sin () = wavelength/a = x/D