CELL

Cell Theory
1.

All organisms consist of 1 or more cells. Cell is the smallest unit of life. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

2.

3.

Why Are Cells So Small?

Cells

need sufficient surface area to allow adequate transport of nutrients in and wastes out. cell volume increases, so does the need for the transporting of nutrients and wastes.

As

Why Are Cells So Small?

However,

as cell volume increases the surface area of the cell does not expand as quickly. SA -R2, Volume R3

If the cells volume gets too large it cannot transport enough wastes out or nutrients in.

Thus,

surface area limits cell volume/size.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

Structures

Plasma membrane Cell wall Cytoplasm with ribosomes Nucleoid Capsule* Flagella* and pili*

*Present in some, but not all prokaryotic cells

Eukaryotic Cell

Characteristics SA /Volume ratio Genome structure

Prokaryotic cell Higher, Growth rate Compact

Eukaryotic cell Lower Have introns, large noncoding regions 95% does not code for proteins or RNA

Gene expression

Nearly whole genome codes

Genes expressed inGenes expressed groups called individually operons DNA amount Remains same DNA amount varies throughout lifecycle regularly between diploid and haploid stages.

Characteristics

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Gamete Formation

No gamete Gamete formation formation because because of sexual no sexual reproduction reproduction Very rare Very common

Exocytosis and endocytosis

Capsule

Present in some

Absent

Lysosome

Characteristics Plant Cell Cell Size Glyoxysomes Vacuoles Large Present

Animal Cell Smaller than plant cells Absent

A single centrally located vacuole. It takes up If any, there are a number of small vacuoles almost 90% of the cell volume. The vacuole stores spread throughout the cytoplasm that store water and maintains turgidity of the cell. water, ions and waste materials. A rigid cell wall (made of cellulose) is present Cell wall is absent. This allows animal cells to around a plant cell that helps it maintain its shape. adopt different shapes. Present. Chlorophyll is the pigment that traps sun's energy which is utilized by plants to make food through the process of photosynthesis. This pigment is present in the chloroplasts. Cell division takes place by the formation of cell plate in the center of the dividing cell. This becomes the cell wall between the two daughter cells. Absent. As animals lack this pigment, they cannot make their own food.

Cell Wall

Chloroplasts

Cell Division

Animal cells divide with the formation of a cleavage furrow. This is formed as the chromosomes move to the ends of the microtubule spindle formed by the centrioles.

Centrioles, Centrosomes

Present only in lower forms. Nuclear envelope act Present. Centrioles help in division of animal cells by creating microtubule spindles that pull as microtubule organizing centers (MTOC) that the chromosomes to opposite ends for cell produce the microtubules. division to occur. Absent Present. Lysosomes are vesicles that contain enzymes that destroy dead cell organelles and other cells debris. Complex golgi bodies are present close to the nucleus. Absent

Lysosomes

Golgi Bodies

In place of golgi bodies, its sub units known as dictyosomes are present.

Ergastic Present (nonliving)subst ances

Plasma Membrane
All

membranes are phospholipid bilayers with embedded proteins The outer plasma membrane

Isolates cell contents Controls what gets in and out of the cell Receives signals

Nucleus

Karyon, nux= nut Robert Brown 1833 plant cells Generally 10% of the total cell volume.

Structure

Nuclear envelope or Karyotheca

Two Phospholipid bilayers with protein lined pores (nuclear pore complex) each 5-10nm thick

Nucleoplasm fluid of the nucleus Chromatin fibers Nucleolus

Nucleus - Structure

The nuclear envelope Components: Inner membrane Bound to nuclear lamina Filamentous network Nuclear lamina Supports envelope Attachment of chromatin Nuclear lamina fibers Proteins lamins

Outer membrane Resembles membrane of endoplasmic reticulum that is continuous with it Perinuclear space Continuous with ER lumen

Nucleus - Structure

The nuclear pore complex (NPC) Large numbers of proteins synthesized in cytoplasm and transported into the nucleus RNAs manufactured in nucleus transported to cytoplasm

Nucleus - Structure
Nucleoplasm or Karyolymph or Nuclear sap Transparent, semisolid, granular and slightly acidophillic ground substance High concentration of materials like nucleotides, which are used to make DNA and RNA. Nucleoproteins Histones, Protamines, Phosphoproteins Enzymes which control the DNA and RNA synthesis reactions.

Nucleus - Structure
Chromation Fibres Thread-like coiled and much elongated structures which readily get stained with basic stains Why? Consists mainly of DNA and proteins Small quantity of RNA may be present

Heterochromatin-inactive Euchromatin-active Euchromatin is less intense staining, while heterochromatin stains intensely, indicating tighter packing Heterochromatin is usually localized to the periphery of the nucleus.

Nucleus - Structure

Nucleolus is a non-membrane bound structure composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the nucleus. Three major components:- the fibrillar centers (FC), the dense fibrillar components (DFC), and granular components (GC) Hundreds of rRNA genes Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transcribed and assembled within the nucleolus. 50% of total RNA synthesis Where ribosomal subunits are made Subunits exit the nucleus via nuclear pores Indirectly involved in protein synthesis

Functions of Nucleus 1. Storage of hereditary material 2. Transcription of mRNA for protein synthesis 3. Ribosome synthesis in nucleolus 4. Selective transportation of regulatory molecules and energy molecules through nuclear pores 5. During cell division, chromatins are condensed into chromosomes. 6. Exchange of hereditary molecules between nucleus and rest of the cell 7. Storage of proteins and RNA in the nucleolus

Mitochondria- Powerhouse

Average Cell-200-800 mitochondria They are found in high concentrations in the muscle cells that require more energy. Outer membraneProtein: phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane (1:1 By weight) Porins- molecules upto 5000 dalton size can pass freely through porins. Intermembrane spaceConcentrations of small molecules such as ions and sugars in the intermembrane space is the same as the cytosol. However, large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane, so the protein composition of this space is different from the protein composition of the cytosol.

Inner membraneLack porins and is highly impermeable to all molecules. Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix. Very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio (more than 3:1 by weight ) There is a membrane potential across the inner membrane. ATP synthase- enzyme which synthesizes ATP (adenosine triphosphate). CristaeInner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae Expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP These folds are studded with small round bodies known as F1 particles or oxysomes- ATP synthase.

MatrixThe matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane. It contains about 2/3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. The matrix contains a highly-concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes, special mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNA (transfer RNA), and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome. Mitochondria have their own genetic material, and the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and proteins.

Functions of Mitochondria 1. Energy: most prominent role of mitochondria is to produce ATP. 2. Calcium concentrations in a cell can regulate an array of reactions and important for signal transduction. Mitochondria can store calcium. 3. Regulation of membrane potential 4. Helps in Apoptosis 5. Important place for Steroid synthesis 6. In liver cells, mitochondria detoxifies ammonia, a waste product of protein metabolism. 7. Provide intermediates for synthesis of biochemicals like chlorophyll, pyrimidines, etc. 8. Synthesis of amino acids. 9. Other processes regulated by mitochondria are: cell cycle, cell growth and cell respiration processes.

Plastids
70 S ribosome, DNA, Self-replicating ChromoplastsPlastids responsible for pigment synthesis and storage red, yellow or orange in colour. Found in petals of flowers and in fruit. Their colour is due to two pigments, carotene and xanthophyll. Functions flowers is to attract agents of pollination. fruit to attract agents of dispersal. Leucoplastsnon-pigmented, colourless occur in plant cells not exposed to light, in roots and non-photosynthetic tissues of plants 1.Amyloplasts- synthesize and store starch 2.Elaioplasts- store lipids 3.Proteinoplasts store proteins Functions Leucoplasts are the centers of starch grain formation; They are also involved in the synthesis of oils and proteins

Chloroplasts
20-40 chloroplasts/ cell in higher plants. Chloroplasts are generally biconvex or plano-convex in shape. Consists of three main components: 1. Envelope chloroplast is bounded by an envelope made up of double unit membranes. Across this double membrane envelope occurs exchange of molecules between chloroplasts and cytosol. 2. Stroma Gel-fluid phase present inside the inner membrane that sorrounds the thylakoids. Stroma contains ribosomes and DNA molecules for the synthesis of chloroplast proteins. Stroma is the place for synthesis of carbohydrates dark reaction of photosynthesis. 20-40 DNA molecules present in stroma. 3. Thylakoids- light reaction Consists of flattened sac-like structures arranged as membraneous network. surrounded by a double membrane.

 Thylakoids usually lie in stacks called grana- 10-100 thylakoids/ granum (plural is grana). 40-50 grana/ chloroplast Contain the photosynthetic pigments - green chlorophyll a and b and the yellow to red carotenoids. Grana are interconnected by tubular membranes called the intergranal frets or lamellae.

Functions 1. Plastome- own DNA for proteins needed for photosynthesis 2. Centres of photosynthesis. 3. Converts CO2 to oxygen, thus maintain balance in atmosphere. 4. Able to trap sun energy and change it to chemical energy which is used by living organisms. 5. Store starch in algae. (Algae - a large and diverse group of simple, typically photosynthetic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms) 6. In algae, provide photosensitivity. 7. In spinach carry out fatty acid synthesis. 8. Store fat in the form of plastoglobuli. (Plastoglobuli- Globules found in plastids). 9. Can be changed into chromoplasts to provide colour to flowers and fruits.

Ribosomes
The site of protein synthesis in the cell -composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins -found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm and attached to internal membranes Ribosome synthesis prokaryote-synthesis in cytoplasm Eukaryotes-synthesis cytoplasm and nucleolus Two subunits smaller subunit binds to the mRNA, larger subunit binds to the tRNA and the amino acids. Two subunits remain free and unite only during protein synthesis.

Types of ribosomes- based on svedberg unit70S ribosomesconsisting of small (30S) and large (50S) subunit, present in prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts 50S- 23S rRNA and 5S rRNA, 34-proteins 30S- 16 S rRNA,21-proteins 80S ribosomessmall- 40S and large-60 S present in eukaryotes 60S- 28S rRNA, 5S rRNA and 5.8S rRNA, 50-proteins 40S- 18 S rRNA, 33-proteins Free or membrane-bound Free - proteins used within cell Membrane-bound attached to RER and nucleus Proteins that are formed from free ribosomes are released into the cytosol and used within the cell. When a ribosome begins to synthesize proteins that are needed in some organelles, the ribosome making this protein can become "membrane-bound". Bound ribosomes usually produce proteins that are used within the plasma membrane or are expelled from the cell via exocytosis.

Endoplasmic reticulum
-Network of disc-like tubules, sacs and vesicles attached to nuclear membrane.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - Granular ER

Membranes that create a network of channels throughout the cytoplasm -attachment of ribosomes to the membrane gives a rough appearance -synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to lysosomes or plasma membrane Example: Pancreatic cells, plasma cells, goblet cells and cells of endocrine glands.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) -Agranular ER

SER forms a continuous system with RER. Ribosomes are not attached -functions: -metabolism of lipids and glycogen -calcium storage -detoxification of foreign substances -Provide surface area for the action of enzymes and to provide storage space for these important enxymes. Example: adipose tissues, brown fat, adrenocortical cells, sebaceous cells, etc. Muscle cells are rich in SER where its called sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Structure: Membrane: 5-10nm thick Similar to plasma membrane Unit membrane Composed of bimolecular layer of phospholipids in which proteins float. Membrane is continuous with the membranes of plasma membrane, nuclear membrane and golgi apparatus. Cisternae Long flattened, sac-like, unbranched tubules having the diameter of 4050M. Arranged parallely in bundles or stakes. RER usually exists as cisternae. Vesicles Oval, membrane-bound vacuolar structures. Tubules Branched structures forming the reticular system along with the cisternae and vesicles. Tubular form of ER is often found in SER.

Common functions of ER: 1. Ultrastructural skeletal framework to the cell and gives mechanical support to the cytoplasmic matrix. 2. Exchange of molecules by the process of osmosis, diffusion and active transport occurs through the membranes of endoplasmic reticulum. 3. Contain many enzymes for various synthetic and metabolic activites. 4. Form nuclear envelope after each nuclear division. 5. Conduct intracellular impulses. Example: Sarcoplasmic reticulum transmits impulses from surface membrane into the muscle fibres and help in muscle contraction. 6. Acts as an intracellular transporting system. 7. Provides membranes to golgi apparatus for lysosome and vesicle formation. 8. Forms vacuoles. 9. Forms Peroxisomes and gloxysomes.
[Glyoxysomes are specialized peroxisomes found in plants (particularly in the fat storage tissues of germinating seeds) in glyoxysomes the fatty acids are hydrolyzed ] 10. Synthesis of ascorbic acid.

SER Functions: 1. Lipid metabolism and storage 2. Glycogen synthesis and Glycogenolysis- breakdown of glycogen into glucose. Enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase is present. Energy stored in glycogen is made available to body. 3. Sterol metabolism- enzymes for cholestrol synthesis present. Cholestrol is the precursor of steroid hormones and bile acids. 4. Detoxification Modifies xenobiotics into more hydrophyllic compound which are easily excreted.
(Xenobiotics from the Greek xenos "stranger" and biotic "related to living beings. A xenobiotic is a chemical which is found in an organism but which is not normally produced or expected to be present in it. Example: drugs and poisons).

5. Other functions: Synthesis of triglycerides in intestinal absorptive cells (Triglycerides are a type of fat in the bloodstream and fat tissue) Synthesis of visual pigments from vitamin A by pigmented cells of retina. In plants, SER forms the surface where cellulose cell walls are formed.

6. Photoreception in the pigment cells of retina.

RER Functions: 1. Protein synthesis- membrane proteins- RER-bound ribosomes. Cytoplasmic proteins- free ribosomes. 2. Provides surface area for the association of enzymes, amino acids and ribosomes. 3. Membrane-bound ribosomes attached to binding sites or receptors on RER. Receptors are membrane proteins present in lipid bilayer and can float there. This movement of receptor proteins helps in the movement of attached ribosomes thus forming polysomes and helping in protein synthesis.

4. Secretary proteins inside ER lumen get protected from protease (enzymes that can break down proteins) enzymes of cytoplasm. 5. Protein glycosylation takes place in RER. 6. Signal hypothesis- The mechanism of secretion of proteins to their
respective destinations in response to the signals present on the protein is known as the Signal Hypothesis.

Golgi Apparatus

It is an organelle in the cell that is responsible for sorting and correctly shipping the proteins produced in the ER.

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Structure :Cisternae- simplest unit of golgi apparatus. 1. Cisternae (about 1M in diameter) are central, flattened, plate-like or saucer-like closed compartment which are held in parallel bundles or stacks one above the other. 2. Each stack of cisternae are associated with each other and appear in a stack-like aggregation. 3. A group of these cisternae is called the dictyosome and a group of dictyosomes make up cells golgi apparatus. 4. Each cisterna is bounded by a smooth unit membrane, having a lumen varying in width from 500-1000nm. TubulesA complex array of associated vesicles and tubules surround the dictyosome.

VesiclesTransitional vesicles- small membrane limited vesicles which are thought to form as blebs from the transitional ER to migrate and converge to cis face of golgi, where they unite to form mew cisternae. Secretory vesicles- membrane-lined vesicles which discharge from margins of cisternae of golgi. They often occur between maturing face of golgi and the plasma membrane. Clathrin-coated vesicles- Clathrin protein is coating these vesicles. They mediate receptor-mediated endocytosis at plasma membrane and transport of newly synthesized lysosomal hydrolases from the trans-Golgi network to the lysosome.

Function 1. Sorting many of cells proteins and membrane constituents, and in directing them to their proper destinations. 2. Enzymes present for glycosylation and phosphorylation. 3. Major site of carbohydrate hemicellulose, etc.). synthesis (eg. Cellulose,

4. In plants, involved in secretion of materials of cell wall (eg., formation and export of glycoproteins, lipids, cellulose etc.) 5. In plants, during cytokinesis of mitosis or meiosis, the vesicles originating from the periphery of golgi apparatus, unite to form a semisolid layer called cellplate. The unit membrane of golgi vesicles fuse during cell plate formation and become part of plasma membrane of daughter cells.

6. All glandular cells depend on golgi for pouring their secretions to the outside. 7. Hormones production by endocrine glands. 8. Collagen (protein found in connective tissues) formation 9. In chick embryo, retinal pigment is synthesized. 10. Regulate fluid balance by expelling extra fluid. 11. Formation of primary lysosomes. 12. In neurosecretory cells, neurosecretory substances are synthesized by RER and then sent to golgi apparatus for packaging and exocytosis. 13. Acrosome (an important constituent of animal sperm which helps at the time of fertilization) formation.