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D. J. Inman
1/44
Section1.4 Modeling and Energy
Methods

An alternative way to determine the
equation of motion and an alternative way
to calculate the natural frequency of a
system

Useful if the forces or torques acting on
the object or mechanical part are difficult
to determine
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D. J. Inman
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Potential and Kinetic Energy
The potential energy of mechanical
systems U is often stored in springs
(remember that for a spring F=kx)
0 0
2
0
0 0
1

2
x x
spring
U F dx kx dx kx = = =
} }
The kinetic energy of mechanical systems T is due to the
motion of the mass in the system
2 2
1 1
,
2 2
trans rot
T mx T Ju = =
M
k
x
0

Mass
Spring
x=0
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D. J. Inman
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Conservation of Energy
T +U = constant
or
d
dt
(T +U) = 0
For a simple, conservative (i.e. no damper), mass spring
system the energy must be conserved:
At two different times t
1
and t
2
the increase in potential
energy must be equal to a decrease in kinetic energy (or visa-
versa).
U
1
U
2
= T
2
T
1
and
U
max
= T
max
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D. J. Inman
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Deriving the equation of motion
from the energy
( )
2 2
1 1
( ) 0
2 2
0
Since cannot be zero for all time, then
0
d d
T U mx kx
dt dt
x mx kx
x
mx kx
| |
+ = + =
|
\ .
+ =
+ =
M
k
x
Mass
Spring
x=0
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D. J. Inman
5/44
Determining the Natural frequency
directly from the energy
U
max
=
1
2
kA
2
T
max
=
1
2
m(e
n
A)
2
Since these two values must be equal
1
2
kA
2
=
1
2
m(e
n
A)
2
k = me
n
2
e
n
=
k
m
If the solution is given by x(t)= Asin(et+|) then the maximum
potential and kinetic energies can be used to calculate the natural
frequency of the system
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D. J. Inman
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Example 1.4.1
Compute the natural frequency of
this roller fixed in place by a spring.
Assume it is a conservative system
(i.e. no losses) and rolls with out
slipping.
2
trans
2
rot
2
1
and
2
1
x m T J T

= = u
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D. J. Inman
7/44
Solution continued
2
Rot
2
max
2
2 2 2
max
2 2
max
2
max max max
2 2 2
2
1
2
The max value of happens at
( ) 1 1 1
( )
2 2 2
The max value of happens at
1
Thus
2
1 1
2 2
n
n
n n
n
x
x r x r T J
r
T v A
A J
T J m A m A
r r
U x A
U kA T U
J
m A kA
r
u u
e
e
e e
e e
= = =
=
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
=
= =
| |
+ =
|
\ .
2
n
k
J
m
r
=
| |
+
|
\ .
Effective mass
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D. J. Inman
8/44
Example 1.4.2 Determine the equation of
motion of the pendulum using energy
u
m
mg

2
m J =
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D. J. Inman
9/44
Now write down the energy
2 2 2
0
2 2
1 1
2 2
(1 cos ), the change in elevation
is (1 cos )
1
( ) (1 cos ) 0
2
T J m
U mg
d d
T U m mg
dt dt
u u
u
u
u u
= =
=

| |
+ = + =
|
\ .
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D. J. Inman
10/44
( )
2
2
2
(sin ) 0
(sin ) 0
(sin ) 0
( ) sin ( ) 0
( ) ( ) 0
n
m mg
m mg
m mg
g
t t
g g
t t
uu u u
u u u
u u
u u
u u e
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ = =
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D. J. Inman
11/44
Example 1.4.4 The effect of including the mass of
the spring on the value of the frequency.
x(t)
m
s
, k
y
y +dy
m

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D. J. Inman
12/44
3


2
1
3 2
1
2
1
3 2
1
2
1
3 2
1
=
element) each of KE the up (adds
2
1
s assumption
), ( : element of velocity
: element of mass
2
max
2 2
max
2 2
2
2
0
s
n
n
s s
tot mass
s
s
spring
dy
s
m
m
k
kA U
A
m
m T x m
m
T x m T
x
m
dy x
y m
T
t x
y
v dy
dy
m
dy
+
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
(

+
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
.
|

\
|
(

=
}
e
e

This provides some

simple design and
modeling guides
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D. J. Inman
13/44
What about gravity?
m
m

+x(t)
0
k
mg
kA
+x(t)
A
2
2
1
( )
2
1
2
spring
grav
U k x
U mgx
T mx
= A+
=
=
m equilibriu static and
FBD, from , 0 = A k mg
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D. J. Inman
14/44
2 2
0 from static
equilibiurm
Now use ( ) 0
1 1
( ) 0
2 2
( )
( ) ( ) 0
0
d
T U
dt
d
mx mgx k x
dt
mxx mgx k x x
x mx kx x k mg
mx kx
+ =
(
+ A+ =
(

+ A+
+ + A =
+ =
Gravity does not effect the
equation of motion or the natural
frequency of the system for a linear
system as shown previously with a
force balance.
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D. J. Inman
15/44
Lagranges Method for deriving
equations of motion.
Again consider a conservative system and its energy.

It can be shown that if the Lagrangian L is defined as
L =T U
Then the equations of motion can be calculated from
0 (1.63)
d L L
dt q q
| | c c
=
|
c c
\ .
Which becomes
0 (1.64)
d T T U
dt q q q
| | c c c
+ =
|
c c c
\ .
Here q is a generalized coordinate
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D. J. Inman
16/44
Example 1.4.7 Derive the equation of motion
of a spring mass system via the Lagrangian
2 2
1 1
and
2 2
T mx U kx = =
Here q = x, and and the Lagrangian becomes
2 2
1 1
2 2
L T U mx kx = =
Equation (1.64) becomes
( )
0 0
0
d T T U d
mx kx
dt x x x dt
mx kx
c c c
| |
+ = + =
|
c c c
\ .
+ =
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D. J. Inman
17/44
1.5 More on springs and stiffness
Longitudinal motion
A is the cross sectional
area (m
2
)
E is the elastic
modulus (Pa=N/m
2
)
is the length (m)
k is the stiffness (N/m)
x(t)
m
k =
EA
l

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D. J. Inman
18/44
Figure 1.21 Torsional Stiffness
J
p
is the polar
moment of inertia of
the rod
J is the mass
moment of inertia of
the disk
G is the shear
modulus, is the
length
J
p

J
u(t)
0
k =
GJ
p
l
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D. J. Inman
19/44
Example 1.5.1 compute the frequency of a shaft/mass
system {J = 0.5 kg m
2
}
4
10 2 2 4
2
( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( ) 0
,
32
For a 2 m steel shaft, diameter of 0.5 cm
(8 10 N/m )[ (0.5 10 m) / 32]
(2 m)(0.5kg m )
2.
p
n p
p
n
M J J t k t
k
t t
J
GJ
k d
J
J J
GJ
J
u u u
u u
t
e
t
e

= + =
+ =
= = =

= =

2 rad/s
From Equation (1.50)
Figure 1.22
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D. J. Inman
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Fig. 1.22 Helical Spring
2R
x(t)
d = diameter of wire
2R= diameter of turns
n = number of turns
x(t)= end deflection
G= shear modulus of
spring material

k =
Gd
4
64nR
3
Allows the design of springs
to have specific stiffness
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D. J. Inman
21/44
Fig 1.23 Transverse beam stiffness
f

m
x

Strength of
materials and
experiments yield:


k =
3EI
l
3
With a mass at the tip:
e
n
=
3EI
ml
3
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D. J. Inman
22/44
Samples of Vibrating Systems
Deflection of continuum (beams, plates,
bars, etc) such as airplane wings, truck
chassis, disc drives, circuit boards
Shaft rotation
Rolling ships
See text for more examples.
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D. J. Inman
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Example 1.5.2 Effect of fuel on
frequency of an airplane wing
Model wing as transverse
beam
Model fuel as tip mass
Ignore the mass of the
wing and see how the
frequency of the system
changes as the fuel is
used up
x(t)
l
E, I m
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D. J. Inman
24/44
Mass of pod 10 kg empty 1000 kg full
= 5.2x10
-5
m
4
, E =6.9x10
9
N/m, = 2 m
Hence the
natural
frequency
changes by an
order of
magnitude
while it
empties out
fuel.
9 5
full
3 3
9 5
empty
3 3
3 3(6.9 10 )(5.2 10 )
1000 2
11.6 rad/s=1.8 Hz
3 3(6.9 10 )(5.2 10 )
10 2
115 rad/s=18.5 Hz
EI
m
EI
m
e
e

= =

=

= =

=
This ignores the mass of the wing
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D. J. Inman
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Example 1.5.3 Rolling motion of a ship
( ) sin ( )
For small angles this becomes
( ) ( ) 0

n
J t WGZ Wh t
J t Wh t
hW
J
u u
u u
e
= =
+ =
=
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D. J. Inman
26/44
Combining Springs: Springs are usually only
available in limited stiffness values. Combing them
allows other values to be obtained
Equivalent Spring

series: k
AC
=
1
1
k
1
+
1
k
2
parallel: k
ab
= k
1
+ k
2
A
B
C
a
b
k
1

k
1

k
2

k
2

This is identical to the combination of capacitors in
electrical circuits
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D. J. Inman
27/44
Use these to design from available
parts
Discrete springs available in standard
values
Dynamic requirements require specific
frequencies
Mass is often fixed or + small amount
Use spring combinations to adjust w
n
Check static deflection
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D. J. Inman
28/44
Example 1.5.5 Design of a spring mass system
using available springs: series vs parallel
Let m = 10 kg
Compare a series and
parallel combination
a) k
1
=1000 N/m, k
2
= 3000
N/m, k
3
= k
4
=0
b) k
3
=1000 N/m, k
4
= 3000
N/m, k
1
= k
2
=0

k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

m
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D. J. Inman
29/44
rad/s 66 . 8
10
750

N/m 750
1 3
3000
) 1 ( ) 1 (
1
, 0
: connection series b) Case
rad/s 20
10
4000

N/m 4000 3000 1000 , 0
: connection parallel a) Case
4 3
2 1
2 1 4 3
= = =
=
+
=
+
= = =
= = =
= + = + = = =
m
k
k k
k k k
m
k
k k k k k
eg
series
eq
eg
parallel
eq
e
e
Same physical components, very different frequency
Allows some design flexibility in using off the shelf components
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D. J. Inman
30/44
Example: Find the equivalent stiffness k of the
following system (Fig 1.26, page 47)
k
1

k
2

k
3

k
4

m
k
5

k
1
+k
2
+k
5

k
3

k
4

m
m

=
1
1
k
3
+
1
k
4
=
k
3
k
4
k
3
+ k
4

k
1
+k
2
+ k
5
+
k
3
k
4
k
3
+k
4
e
n
=
k
1
k
3
+ k
2
k
3
+ k
5
k
3
+ k
1
k
4
+ k
2
k
4
+ k
5
k
4
+ k
3
k
4
m(k
3
+ k
4
)
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D. J. Inman
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Example 1.5.5 Compare the natural
frequency of two springs connected to a mass in
parallel with two in series
A series connect of k
1
=1000 N/m and k
2
=3000 N/m with m = 10 kg
yields:
k
eq
=
1
1/ 1000 +1/ 3000
= 750 N/m e
series
=
750 N/m
10 kg
= 8.66 rad/s
A parallel connect of k
1
=1000 N/m and k
2
=3000 N/m with m = 10 kg
yields:
k
eg
=1000 N/m + 3000 N/m = 4000 N/m e
par
=
4000 N/m
10 kg
= 20 rad/s
Same components, very different frequency
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Static Deflection
Another important consideration in designing with springs is the
static deflection
Ak = mg A =
mg
k
This determines how much a spring compresses or sags due
to the static mass (you can see this when you jack your car up)
The other concern is rattle space which is the maximum
deflection A
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Section 1.6 Measurement
Mass: usually pretty easy to measure using
a balance- a static experiment
Stiffness: again can be measured statically
by using a simple displacement
measurement and knowing the applied force
Damping: can only be measured
dynamically
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Measuring moments of inertia
using a Trifilar suspension system
J =
gT
2
r
0
2
m
0
+ m
( )
4t
2
l
J
0
T is the measured period
g is the acceleration due to gravity
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D. J. Inman
35/44
Stiffness Measurements
From Static Deflection:
Deflection or strain
Linear Nonlinear
From Dynamic Frequency:
F = k x or o = E c

e
n
=
k
m
k = me
n
2

k =
F
x
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D. J. Inman
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Example 1.6.1 Use the beam stiffness
equation to compute the modulus of a material
Figure 1.24 = 1 m, m = 6 kg, I = 10
-9
m
4
, and measured T = 0.62 s
T = 2t
ml
3
3EI
= 0.62 s
E =
4t
2
ml
3
3T
2
I
=
4t
2
6 kg ( ) 1 m ( )
3
3(0.62 s)
2
10
9
m
4
( )
= 2.05 10
11
N/m
2
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D. J. Inman
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Damping Measurement (Dynamic only)
Define the Logarithmic Decrement:
( )
( )
ln (1.71)
( )
sin( )
ln
sin( ) )
n
n
t
d
t T
d d
n
x t
x t T
Ae t
Ae t T
T
,e
,e
o
e |
o
e e |
o ,e

+
=
+
+
=
+ +
=
2 2
4 o t
o
e
o
,
+
= = =
T c
c
n cr
(1.75)
(1.72)
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D. J. Inman
38/44
Section 1.7: Design Considerations
Using the analysis so far to guide the
selection of components.
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D. J. Inman
39/44
Example 1.7.1
Mass 2 kg < m < 3 kg and k > 200 N/m
For a possible frequency range of
8.16 rad/s < e
n
< 10 rad/s
For initial conditions: x
0
= 0, v
0
< 300
mm/s
Choose a c so response is always < 25
mm
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D. J. Inman
40/44
Solution:
Write down x(t) for 0
initial displacement
Look for max
amplitude
Occurs at time of first
peak (T
max
)
Compute the
amplitude at T
max
Compute , for
A(T
max
)=0.025

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time(sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

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D. J. Inman
41/44
0
Amplitude
0
0
( ) sin( )
worst case happens at smallest 8.16 rad/s
worst case happens at max 300 mm/s
With and fixed at these values, investigate how varies with
First pea
n
t
d
d
d n
n
v
x t e t
v
v
,e
e
e
e e
e ,

=
=
=
( )
2
1
2
2
1 1
max
1
2 tan ( )
1 1
0
max
2
k is highest and occurs at
( ) 0 cos( ) sin( ) 0
1 1 1
Solve for tan ( ) tan
1
Sub into ( ) : ( ) ( ) sin(tan
1
n n
t t
d d n d
d
m
d n d
m m
n
d
x t e t e t
dt
t T T
v
T x t A x T e
,e ,e
, ,
,
,
e e ,e e
, e
e ,e e ,
,
,
e ,

= =
| |

| = = =
|
\ .

= =

2
1
2
1
tan ( )
1
0
)
( )
m
n
v
A e
, ,
,
,
,
,
e

| |
|
|
\ .
=
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42/44
mm 37 yields 0 = FYI,
kg/s 15 . 14 281 . 0 16 . 8 3 2 2
yields
kg) 3 = ( mass on the limit upper the Using
281 . 0 025 . 0 ) (
solve m 0.025 then less max value the keep To
0
max
max
= =
= = =
= =
n
n
v
A
m c
m
A
e
,
, e
, ,
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D. J. Inman
43/44
Example 1.7.3 What happens to a good design when
some one changes the parameters? (Car suspension system). How
does , change with mass?
kg/s 10 81 . 3 ) 14 )( 1361 ( 2 2 1 =
N/m 10 668 . 2 ) 14 ( 1361
rad/s 14
05 . 0
81 . 9
, 1361
. , compute m, 0.05 = kg, 1361 = m 1, = Given
4
5 2
2
= = =
= =
= =
A
=
A
= A = = =
A
n
n
n n
m c
k
m
mg
mg
k k mg k
m
k
k c
e ,
e
e e
,
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D. J. Inman
44/44
Now add 290 kg of passengers
and luggage. What happens?
9 . 0
2
10 81 . 3
rad/s 7 . 12
06 . 0
8 . 9
m 06 . 0
10 668 . 2
8 . 9 1651
kg 1651 290 1361
4
5
=

= =
= =
A
=
~

= = A
= + =
n cr
n
m c
c
g
k
mg
m
e
,
e
So some oscillation
results at a lower
frequency.