Educational Research

Chapter 4 Selecting a Sample Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Topics Discussed in this Chapter

Quantitative sampling

Selecting random samples Selecting non-random samples Selecting purposive samples

Qualitative sampling

Quantitative Sampling

Purpose to identify participants from whom to seek some information Issues

Nature of the sample Size of the sample Method of selecting the sample

Quantitative Sampling

Terminology

Population: all members of a specified group

Target population the population to which the researcher ideally wants to generalize Accessible population the population to which the researcher has access

Sample: a subset of a population Subject: a specific individual participating in a study Sampling technique: the specific method used to select a sample from a population
Obj. 1.1, 1.2, & 1.3

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues

Representation the extent to which the sample is representative of the population

Demographic characteristics Personal characteristics Specific traits

Generalization the extent to which the results of the study can be reasonably extended from the sample to the population
Obj. 1.4

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

Sampling error

The chance occurrence that a randomly selected sample is not representative of the population due to errors inherent in the sampling technique Random nature of errors Controlled by selecting large samples
Obj. 6.1

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

Sampling bias

Some aspect of the researchers sampling design creates bias in the data Non-random nature of errors Controlled by being aware of sources of sampling bias and avoiding them Examples

Surveying only students who attend additional help sessions in a class Using data returned from only 25% of those sent a questionnaire
Obj. 6.2

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

Three fundamental steps

Identify a population Define the sample size Select the sample

Obj. 1.5

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

General rules for sample size

As many subjects as possible Thirty (30) subjects per group for correlational, causal-comparative, and true experimental designs Ten (10) to twenty (20) percent of the population for descriptive designs
Obj. 1.8

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

General rules for sample size (continued)

See Table 4.2 for additional guidelines for survey research

The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of the population needed to get a representative sample For population of less than 100, use the entire population If the population is about 500, sample 50% If the population is about 1,500, sample 20% If the population is larger than 5,000, sample 400
Obj. 1.9

Selecting Random Samples

Known as probability sampling Best method to achieve a representative sample Four techniques

Random Stratified random Cluster Systematic

Obj. 1.7

Selecting Random Samples

Random sampling

Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an equal and independent chance of being selected Advantages

Easy to conduct High probability of achieving a representative sample Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures

Disadvantages

Identification of all members of the population can be difficult Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
Obj. 1.6, 2.2, & 4.9

Selecting Random Samples

Random sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population Determine the desired sample size List all members of the population Assign all members on the list a consecutive number Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of random numbers and read the appropriate number of digits If the number corresponds to a number assigned to an individual in the population, that individual is in the sample; if not, ignore the number Continue until the desired number of subjects have been selected
Obj. 2.3

Selecting Random Samples

Random sampling (continued)

Selection issues

Use a table of random numbers

Need to list all members of the population Ignore duplicates and numbers out of range when sampled Potentially time consuming and frustrating

Use SPSS-Windows or other software to select a random sample

Create a SPSS-Windows data set of the population or their identification numbers Pull-down commands Data, select cases, random sample, approximate or exact

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling

Selecting subjects so that relevant subgroups in the population (i.e., strata) are guaranteed representation A strata represents a variable on which the researcher would like to see representation in the sample

Gender Ethnicity Grade level

Obj. 3.1 & 3.3

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Proportional and non-proportional (i.e., equal size)

Proportional same proportion of subgroups in the sample as in the population

If a population has 45% females and 55% males, the sample should have 45% females and 55% males

Non-proportional different, often equal, proportions of subgroups

Selecting the same number of children from each of the five grades in a school even though there are different numbers of children in each grade
Obj. 3.4

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Advantages

More precise sample Can be used for both proportional and non-proportional samples Representation of subgroups in the sample Identification of all members of the population can be difficult Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
Obj. 3.2 & 4.9

Disadvantages

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population Determine the desired sample size Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for which you want to guarantee appropriate representation Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified subgroups
Obj. 4.1

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Selection process (continued)

For proportional stratified samples

Randomly select a number of individuals from each subgroup so the proportion of these individuals in the sample is the same as that in the population Randomly select an equal number of individuals from each subgroup
Obj. 4.1

For non-proportional stratified samples

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Selection process for proportional samples

Identify and define the population Determine the desired sample size Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for which you want to guarantee appropriate representation Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified subgroups Randomly select an equal number of individuals from each subgroup
Obj. 4.1

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling

Selecting subjects by using groups that have similar characteristics and in which subjects can be found

Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the population can be found Examples

Neighborhoods School districts Schools Classrooms

Obj. 4.3

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling (continued)

Multistage sampling involves the use of two or more sets of clusters

Randomly select a number of school districts from a population of districts Randomly select a number of schools from within each of the school districts Randomly select a number of classrooms from within each school
Obj. 4.6

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling (continued)

Advantages

Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large geographic region Convenient and expedient Do not need the names of everyone in the population Representation is likely to become an issue Assumptions of some statistical procedures can be violated
Obj. 4.9

Disadvantages

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population Determine the desired sample size Identify and define a logical cluster List all clusters that make up the population of clusters Estimate the average number of population members per cluster Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the estimated size of a cluster Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters Include in the study all individuals in each selected cluster
Obj. 4.4

Selecting Random Samples

Systematic sampling

Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the members of the population Advantage

Very easily done

Susceptible to systematic exclusion of some subgroups Some members of the population dont have an equal chance of being included

Disadvantages

Obj. 4.7 & 4.9

Selecting Random Samples

Systematic sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population Determine the desired sample size Obtain a list of the population Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of the population by the desired sample size Start at some random place in the population list Take every Kth individual on the list If the end of the list is reached before the desired sample is reached, go back to the top of the list
Obj. 4.8

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Known as non-probability sampling Use of methods that do not have random sampling at any stage Useful when the population cannot be described Three techniques

Convenience Purposive Quota

Obj. 5.1

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Convenience sampling

Selection based on the availability of subjects

Volunteers Pre-existing groups

Concerns related to representation and generalizability

Obj. 5.2 & 5.3

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Purposive sampling

Selection based on the researchers experience and knowledge of the individuals being sampled

Usually selected for some specific reason

Knowledge and use of a particular instructional strategy Experience Being in a specific setting such as a school changing to a teacher-based decision-making process

Need for clear criteria for describing and defending the sample Concerns related to representation and generalizability
Obj. 5.2 & 5.4

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Quota sampling

Selection based on the exact characteristics and quotas of subjects in the sample when it is impossible to list all members of the population Concerns with accessibility, representation, and generalizability
Obj. 5.2 & 5.5

Quantitative Sampling Comments

Both probability and non-random sampling techniques are used in quantitative research

Probability models are desired due to the selection of a representative sample and the ease with which the results can be generalized to the population Non-random (i.e., non-probability) models are frequently used due the reality of the situations in which the research is being conducted

Concerns with representation Concerns with generalization

Qualitative Sampling

Unique characteristics of qualitative research

In-depth inquiry Immersion in the setting Importance of context Appreciation of participants perspectives Description of a single setting

The need for alternative sampling strategies

Obj. 7.2

Qualitative Sampling

Purposive techniques relying on the experience and insight of the researcher to select participants

Intensity compare differences of two or more levels of the topics

Students with extremely positive and extremely negative attitudes Effective and ineffective teachers
Obj. 7.3

Qualitative Sampling

Purposive techniques (continued)

Homogeneous small groups of participants who fit a narrow homogeneous topic Criterion all participants who meet a defined criteria Snowball initial participants lead to other participants
Obj. 7.4, 7.5, & 7.6

Qualitative Sampling

Purposive techniques (continued)

Random purposive given a pool of participants, random selection of a small sample

Combinations of techniques Inherent concerns related to generalizability and representation

Obj. 7.7 & 7.8

Qualitative Sampling

Sample size

Generally very small samples given the nature of the data collection methods and the data itself Two general guidelines

Redundancy of the information collected from participants Representation of the range of potential participants in the setting
Obj. 7.9

Generalizability

Probability sampling

Begins with a population and selects a sample from it Generalizability to the population is relatively easy

Non-probability and purposive sampling

Begins with a sample that is NOT selected from some larger population Must consider the population hypothetical as it is based on the characteristics of the sample Generalizability is often very limited
Obj. 7.10