A sticky and opaque fluid. Has a metallic taste. Color varies from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to dull red (oxygen-poor).

). About 5 time heavier than water and more viscous. Slightly alkaline (pH of 7.35 to 7.45). Approximately 38 C temperature. Accounts for 8% of body weight (5 to 6 liters).

 Blood

is unique, it is the only fluid tissue in the human body. Collagen and elastin fibers are absent from blood, but dissolved proteins become visible as fibrin strands during clotting. Contains plasma and formed elements.

 Approximately

90% water. A straw-colored fluid. Contains over 100 dissolved substances such as nutrients, salts (electrolytes), respiratory gases, hormones, plasma proteins, and waste products from cell metabolism.

PLASMA PROTEINS
Most

abundant solutes in the plasma. Made by the liver (except for antibodies and protein-based hormones). Not taken up by cells to be used as food fuels or metabolic nutrients.

PLASMA PROTEINS
1. ALBUMIN - Acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules through circulation. - An important blood buffer. - Contributes to osmotic pressure of blood, which acts to keep water in the bloodstream. 2. CLOTTING PROTEINS - Stem blood loss when vessels are injured. 3. ANTIBODIES - Help protect the body from pathogens.

1. ERTHROCYTES

2. LEUKOCYTES
3. PLATELETS

Also called red blood cells, they are small, flexible cells, and shaped like biconcave discs. Lacks nucleus and mitochondia, and contain very few organelles. Main component is hemoglobin (a single RBC has 250 million Hgb molecules or 12 to 18 grams per 100 ml of blood), an iron-bearing protein, which transports oxygen to the cell. There are about 5 million red blood cells per cubic millimeter of blood.

DIRECT CAUSE
1. DECREASE IN RBC NUMBER

RESULTING FROM
Sudden hemorrhage. Lysis of RBC due to bacterial infection. Lack of vitamin B12. Problem of bone marrow.

LEADING TO
Hemorrhagic Anemia Hemolytic Anemia

Pernicious Anemia Aplastic Anemia Iron Deficiency Anemia Sickle Cell Anemia Polycythemia Vera Secondary Polycythemia

2. INADEQUATE HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT 3. ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN IN RBC 4. INCREASE IN RBC NUMBER

Lack of iron in diet. Genetic defect of being sharp and sickle-shaped. Bone marrow cancer. Living at high altitudes.

Also called white blood cells, and are less numerous than RBCs, on average, 4000 to 11000 per cubic millimeter. The only complete cells in the blood, that is they have a nucleus and the usual organelles. Able to slip in and out of the blood, called diapedesis. Form a protective, movable army that helps defend body against pathogens. Can locate areas of tissue damage and infection by responding to certain chemicals that diffuse from the damaged cells, a process called positive chemotaxis.

Account for 40% to 75% of blood leukocytes. Responsible for phagocytosis (literally means celleating), of short term or acute infections, and are particularly partial to bacteria and fungi. Neutrophils cannot replicate, they die following phagocytosis. Accumulation of dead neutrophils contributes to the formation of pus. Respond to both acidic and basic stain, and cytoplasm as a whole stains pink.

Account for 2% to 5% of leukocytes. Have a blue-red nucleus. Also phagocytic cells but not as effective as neutrophils. Dampen down the inflammatory response and decrease granulocyte migration into the inflammatory site. Often seen with allergic reactions and parasitic infections.

Comprise less than 2% of total leukocytes. Stains dark blue. Functions as an inflammatory mediator. Releases histamine, an inflammatory chemical that makes blood vessels dilate and leaky, and attracts other WBCs to the inflammatory site. Contains heparin, an anticoagulant.

Smallest in size, have a large dark purple nucleus, and comprise 20% to 35% of total WBC count. Originate from stem cells in bone marrow and differentiate or mature into either T or B cells, both are responsible for immune response. B lymphocytes produces antibodies T lymphocytes involved in graft rejection and in fighting tumors and viruses

Largest in size, and account for 2% to 6% of the total leukocytes. Monocytes circulate in the blood, but when they migrate to tissues, they mature into macrophages. Macrophage literally means big-eaters and are responsible for fighting chronic infections such as tuberculosis

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 1. LEUKOCYTOSIS High WBC count commonly caused by bacterial or viral infection. 2. LEUKOPENIA low WBC count commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anti-cancer agents. 3. LEUKEMIA Bone marrow becomes cancerous and huge numbers of WBC are turned our rapidly.

 Not

cells in the strict sense, but are fragments of bizarre multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes. Appear darkly staining, irregularly shaped bodies, and about 300,000/mm3 in average. Needed for normal blood clotting.

Occurs in the red bone marrow found in flat bones of skull and pelvis, ribs, sternum, and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur. On average, produces an ounce of new blood everyday, containing 100 billion new cells. All formed elements arise from a common type of stem cell called hemocystoblast. 1. LYMPHOID STEM CELL produces lymphocytes 2. MYELOID STEM CELL produces erythrocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, and platelets

Because they are anucleate, they are unable to synthesize proteins, do not grow, and cannot divide. As they age, they become rigid, begin to fragment, and fall apart, in 100 to 120 days. Their remains are eliminated by phagocytes in spleen, liver, and other body tissues. Developing RBCs divide many times and begin synthesizing hemoglobin, the result is called a reticulocyte (a young RBC with some endoplasmic reticulum). Reticulocytes enter bloodstream to begin task of transporting oxygen, and once they have ejected remaining endoplastic reticulum, they become mature. Entire process of RBC maturation takes place in 3 to 5 days. Rate of RBC production is controlled by a hormone called erythropoetin (from kidneys and liver).

STIMULATED BY THE HORMONES: 1. Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins, which prompt red marrow to turn out leukocytes and platelets. 2. Thrombopoetin, which accelerates production of platelets. BONE MARROW ASPIRATION AND BIOPSY Use of special needle to withdraw a small sample of blood or red marrow.

HEMOSTASIS
1. VASCULAR SPASM

Vasoconstriction. 2. FORMATION OF PLATELET PLUG White thrombus forms. 3. COAGULATION a. Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF), which plays an important role in clotting. b. The PF3, a phospholipid, coats surfaces of platelets thats triggers clotting cascade. c. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin (in plasma) to thrombin (an enzyme). d. Thrombin joins fibrinogen into fibrin, which traps RBC, squeezes serum (plasma minus clotting proteins), and pulls edges of vessels together.

HEMOSTASIS
UNDESIRABLE CLOTTING Thrombus blood clot in an unbroken blood vessel. Embolus a thrombus that breaks away from the vessel wall and floats freely in the bloodstream. BLEEDING DISORDERS Thrombocytopenia platelet deficiency. Petechiae small purplish blotches on the skin. Hemophilia hereditary bleeding disorders due to lack of factors needed for clotting.

Blood loss of 15% to 30% leads to pallor and weakness, while loss of over 30% causes severe shock.

BLOOD BANK PROCEDURE: 1. Collects blood from donor. 2. Mixes blood with anticoagulant to prevent clotting. 3. Stores at 4 C for about 35 days until needed.

ANTIGEN genetically determined proteins in the RBC membrane which stimulates immune system to produce antibodies. ANTIBODIES present in the plasma that attaches to RBC after recognizing an antigen.
AGGLUTINATION binding of antibodies, causing the foreign RBC to clump. 1. agglutinogens RBC antigens that promote clumping 2. agglutinins antibodies that bind them together