Chapter-5A

Types of Storage Devices

How data is stored on a disk
 Tracks & sectors

Any disk must be formatted

before being used. Formatting
means that imaginary tracks and
sectors are marked on the disk
surface.
 Tracks & Sectors
Tracks are concentric circles where data is
recorded. They are numbered from outermost to
innermost starting with 0. Each track contains
the same number of bytes, therefore the amount
of data is limited by the size of the innermost
track.
Sectors are imaginary pie slices
How OS Find Data on a Disk

Booting
FAT
Master Folder
 Booting

To load the first piece of software that starts a computer.

Because the operating system is essential for running all
other programs, it is usually the first piece of software
loaded during the boot process. Boot is short for
bootstrap, which in olden days was a strap attached to
the top of your boot that you could pull to help get your
boot on. Hence, the expression "pull oneself up by the
bootstraps." Similarly, bootstrap utilities help the
computer get started.
Short for bootstrap, the starting-up of a computer,
which involves loading the operating system and other
basic software. A cold boot is when you turn the
computer on from an off position. A warm boot is when
you reset a computer that is already on.
 FAT
A table that the operating system
uses to locate files on a disk. Due
to fragmentation, a file may be
divided into many sections that
are scattered around the disk.
The FAT keeps track of all these
pieces.
 Fragmentation
Refers to the condition of a disk in which files
are divided into pieces scattered around the disk.
Fragmentation occurs naturally when you use a
disk frequently, creating, deleting, and
modifying files. At some point, the operating
system needs to store parts of a file in
noncontiguous clusters. This is entirely invisible
to users, but it can slow down the speed at which
data is accessed because the disk drive must
search through different parts of the disk to put
together a single file.
 Cluster

A group of disk sectors.

 Master Folder
An organizational unit, or container, used to organize folders and files into
a hierarchical structure. Directories contain bookkeeping information
about files that are, figuratively speaking, beneath them in the hierarchy.
You can think of a directory as a file cabinet that contains folders that
contain files. Many graphical user interfaces use the term folder instead of
directory. Computer manuals often describe directories and file structures
in terms of an inverted tree. The files and directories at any level are
contained in the directory above them. To access a file, you may need to
specify the names of all the directories above it. You do this by specifying a
path.
The topmost directory in any file is called the root directory. A directory
that is below another directory is called a subdirectory. A directory above a
subdirectory is called the parent directory. Under DOS and Windows, the
root directory is a back slash (\).
To read information from, or write information into, a directory, you must
use an operating system command. You cannot directly edit directory files.
For example, the DIR command in DOS reads a directory file and displays
its contents.
Master Folder/Directory
 Hard Disk.
The hard disk or hard drive is an
essential hardware that every
computer desktop and server contain.
And its functionality, is to store vast
amount of digital data in a non-
volatile form, so that data can be
retained when the computer is
powered off. Data is again accessed
when the power is on.
 Read Write Head

The RW head is the key component that performs the

reading and writing functions. It is placed on a slider
which is in term connected to an actuator arm which
allow the RW head to access various parts of the platter
during data IO functions by sliding across the spinning
platter. The sliding motion is derived by passing a
current through the coil which is part of the actuator-
assembly. As the coil is placed between two magnets, the
forward or backward sliding motion is hence derived by
simple current reversal. This location of the platter (just
like the landmark along the road) is identified and made
possible by the embedded servo code written on the
platter.
 Read Write Function of Disk

As the head writes data onto the disk, it changes

its magnetic polarization to induce either a one
or zero value. During a read request, data is
interpreted when the magnetic fields on the
platter brings about an electrical change (as a
result of change in electrical resistance of some
special material property) in the read-head that
passes over it. These electrical fields are then
encoded and transmitted to the CPU to be
processed and read by the system.
 Parking of RW Head

When the computer is switched off, the head is

usually pulled to a safe parking zone to prevent
the head from scratching against the data zone
on platter. This process is called a parking and
different techniques have been implemented in
various hard disks to handle the take offs and
landings. In a Ramp load/unload design, a
lifting mechanism parks the head outside of the
platter onto a "parking bay" prior to a
shutdown. It then automatically unpacks and
relocates itself
 There're two popular ways to measure the performance of a hard disk:

DataRate

Data rate is also known as data transfer rate or throughput. It refers to the
speed with which the data can be transmitted from one device to another.
Data rates are commonly measured in megabytes (MB) per second. The
data rates for a typically hard disk ranges between 5 to 40 megabytes per
second.
Seek Rate
Seek time refers to the total span of time between a file request by the CPU
to the point when the first byte of the file is sent to the CPU. This is one of
the several delays associated with reading or writing data on a computer's
disk drive. In order to read or write data in a particular place on the disk,
the read/write head needs to maneuver to the precise location of the disk
platter. This process is known as "seeking", and the time it takes for the
head to move to the right place is referred to the "seek time". A typical seek
time for a hard disk is about 9 to 15 ms.
 S.M.A.R.T

Majority of all hard disk today support a technology known as S.M.A.R.T.

(Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology) which helps to
predict imminent disk failures so that users can be alerted to take
preventive actions before the disk fails completely.

Generally, there are two classes of failures, namely Non-Predictable

failures and Predictable failure. Non-predictable failure associates with
abrupt and unpredictable damages such as a sudden power surge that
burns an electronic component. On the other hand, Predictable failure
monitors mechanical wear and aging which takes place over time. In a
nutshell, S.M.A.R.T functions like a monitoring device that reads and
analyses the performance of a disk. If a gradual defection is observed
(which can lead to a likely disk failure), a message will notify you to
backup your data and and replace your disk
 CD-ROM
The definition of a CD-ROM
CD-ROM describes a drive that is able to read digital data stored
on a compact disk. Like an audio compact+ disk player, the CD-
ROM uses a laser pickup mechanism to read the stored data. A
laser beam shines on the compact disk, and if it is deflected by
the disk to a sensor, the computer registers this as a "1". If no
light is deflected, it is assumed as a "0". Note that these drives
are only able to read data, but not able write data. Up to 680MB
(ISO 9660) of digital data can be stored on a single compact disk.
The basic CD-ROM spins the compact disk at the same rotational
speed that a normal audio compact disk player spins at. This
allows for a data transfer rate of 150Kb/s.
What is a 2x CD-ROM?
This is the same as the basic CD-ROM, but the compact disk has
a rotational speed twice that of a normal audio compact disk
player. This allows double the amount of information to be read
from the disk per second - 300Kb/s.
 DVD
Definition of a DVD-ROM
A Digital Video Disk (DVD) is similar to a normal compact disk,
but it is able to store more than 4Gb of digital data on a single
disk. The drive has a different frequency laser from normal CD-
ROMs and hence DVD media cannot be used on a normal CD-
ROM.
What is a 2x DVD-ROM?
This is the same as the basic DVD-ROM, but the Digital Video
Disk has a rotational speed twice that of a normal DVD-ROM. This
allows two times the amount of information to be read from the
disk per second. The same goes for 5x etc.
 DVD-RAM

A DVD format wherein DVD-

RAM discs can be recorded and
erased repeatedly but are only
compatible with devices
manufactured by the companies
that support the DVD-RAM
format