The Arab UprisingTunisia and Libya

HISTORY AND BACKGROUND OF THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST

BRIEF HISTORY
The Ottoman era one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history Was inspired and sustained by Islam and Islamic institutions. In 16th and 17th century, controlled territories in southeast Europe, western Asia and north Africa. Collapse of the empire as a regime under a monarchy

EUROPEAN DOMINATION

Ottomans alliance with Germany in the 1st world war against British and France. British and French governments concluded the war with a secret treaty (Sykes-picot agreement) to partition the middle east between them. British mandated territories: Iraq, Palestine, Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Transjordan etc French mandated territories: hatay, Lebanon, Syria, Yemen, Tunisia, morocco, Algeria Italy: Libya

ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT
Conflict between Jewish and Zionist yishuv and the Arab population living in Palestine under Ottoman or British rule. British mandate of Palestine : the Balfour declaration Arab-Israeli war of 1948

TUNISIA
Political history o French era, world war II and independence: was officially made a French protectorate according to the treaty of bordo in 1883. was the scene of the third major operations by the Allied Forces (the British Empire and the United States) against the Axis Powers (Italy and Germany) achieved independence from France in 1956 led by Habib Bourguiba, who later became the first Tunisian President

 Tunisia

under Bourguiba (1956-87)

Political rule the Neo-Destour Party ensured that Tunisia moved quickly with reforms in the areas of education, the liberation of women, and legal reforms. Bourguiba centralized power under his progressive but increasingly personalized rule

 Economic life Four stages can

be identified in the countrys post-independence economic life under Bourguiba Initial stage of attempted economic decolonization. Ideological stage of socialist transformation Attempt at stage managed, private sector funded industrialization The stabilization programme of mid 80s.

 Tunisia

11) Ben Ali was appointed Prime Minister in October 1987, and he assumed the Presidency on 7 November 1987 in a bloodless coup d'tat. had problems with human rights violations, such as freedom of the press. Ben Ali instituted economic reforms that increased Tunisia's growth rate and foreign investment

under Ben Ali 87-

However, Tunisia continued to suffer from a high unemployment, especially among youth. Ben-Ali's government was deemed authoritarian and undemocratic by independent international human rights groups such as Amnesty International, Freedom House, and Protection International. They criticized Tunisian officials for not observing international standards of political rights and interfering with the work of local human rights organizations.

Western encounter with the middle east

The United States relationship with the Middle East prior to the Second World War was minimal. In comparison to European powers such as Britain and France, the United States was popular and respected throughout the Middle East

ORIENTALISM A self serving view of the Asians, Africans and Arabs as decadent, alien and inferior by the west. For British orientalists, ottoman despotism, Islamic obscurantism and Arab racial inferiority had combined to produce a backward culture that was badly in need of Anglo-Saxon tutelage. The waxing of America's power after 1945 subconsciously shaped US popular attitudes and foreign policy towards the middle east.

Orientalist images of the middle east and the third world were generated and disseminated by the national geographic. The subliminal messages depicted the middle east as backward, exotic and occasionally dangerous who have needed and will continue to need US guidance and support. Release of Disney studios, Alladin in 1992, confirmed that orientalism had sunk deep roots into the US popular culture.

OCCIDENTALISM Is a stereotyped and dehumanizing view of the Western world, including Europe and the Englishspeaking world ideologies or visions of the West developed in either the West or non-West. Occidentalism is often the result of a hatred of the West as the Infidel. secular Occidentalism takes the form of a hatred of certain ideas and practices of the West.

MIDDLE EAST AND THE US

Persian Gulf oil support and protection of the new nation of Israel containment of the Soviet Union

LIBYA
Italian

rule, world war II and independence The Italian rule in Libya started with the Italian conquest of coastal Tripolitania and Cyrenaica from the Ottomans in 1911. On 21 November 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution that Libya should become independent before 1 January 1952.

 Kingdom of Libya (1951-1969) On 24 December 1951, Libya declared

its independence with representatives from Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan declaring a union with the country being called the United Kingdom of Libya. Two years after independence, on 28 March 1953, Libya joined the Arab League.

In April 1955, oil exploration started in the kingdom with its first oil fields being discovered in 1959. The first exports began in 1963 with the discovery of oil helping to transform the Libyan economy, although imposing a resource curse on Libya. popular resentment grew as wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the elite.

 Libya under Gaddafi Gaddafi became the

facto leader of the country on 1 September 1969. Libyan revolution the RCC headed by Gaddafi abolished the monarchy and the old constitution and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic, with the motto "freedom, socialism, and unity

de

In 1988, faced with rising public dissatisfaction with shortages in consumer goods and setbacks in Libya's war with Chad. began to pursue an anti-fundamentalist Islamic policy domestically, viewing fundamentalism as a potential rallying point for opponents of the regime.

Gaddafi was a major financier of the "Black September Movement" which perpetrated the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics. became a strong supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organization, which ultimately harmed Libya's relations with Egypt. Opposition to the Jamahiriya reforms

 Foreign relation principal foreign

policy goals: Arab unity, elimination of Israel, advancement of Islam, support for Palestinians, elimination Westerninfluence in the Middle East and Africa. supported international terrorism and subversion against moderate Arab and African governments. Closure of American and British bases on Libyan territory and partially nationalized all foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya.

 Unemployment High unemployment

in middle eastern countries, together with low labour force participation rates, resulted in very low ratios of employment to working-age population. the unemployment rate among those with college degrees exceeded 15 percent in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia in 2008.

offered some insight into the upheaval in Tunisia and other countries of the middle east. overarching theme of the cables: corruption were translated and disseminated through private websites and social networking sites

Wikileaks

cables

References

The modern middle east by Mehran Kamrava Libya: the struggle for survival by Geoffrey Leslie Simmons western footprints in middle east by Rashid Khalidi Tunisia: stability and reform in modern Maghreb by Christopher Alexander www.britannica.com www.globalissues.org www.wikipedia.com

Aftermaths and Implications

Tunisian Uprising A Brief Timeline

December 17: Mohammed Bouazizi, a fruit and vegetable seller immolates himself at Sidi Bouzid. The protests start the same day. Hundreds rally over rampant unemployment. Scuffle b/w the police and the demonstrators follows. December 28: Ben Ali warns the protestors on national television broadcast. Criticizes the use of violence in the streets by a minority of extremists and says the law will be applied in all firmness to punish the protestors. January 2: The cyberactivist group Anonymous announces Operation Tunisia with direct denial of services attack. Struggle b/w the police and the protestors continue throughout

January 5: Bouazizi dies of self-inflicted burns

January 7: a group of bloggers, journalists, activists and a rapper arrested

January 8-12: Snipers carry out a series of massacres in Kasserine and Thala, shocking the Tunisians throughout the country and laying the seeds for the uprising to become a nationwide phenomenon January 13: Ben Ali makes a televised address announcing unprecedented concessions and promises
January 14: Ben Ali imposes a state of emergency and fires the countrys government. Flees the country with family (He is presently in Saudi Arabia) January 15: Tunisias constitutional court appoints Fouad Mebazza as the interim president replacing Mohammed Ghannouchi

January 16: a 4 part series of US Diplomatic Cables released by Wikileaks puts US in a bad light January 17: A new government announced, including several of Ben Alis loyalists in key posts. Tunisians take to the streets protesting the lineup of the new government January 26: Interpol asked to arrest ousted president Ben Ali and his family January 27: Reshuffle in the cabinet announced; key ministers of Ben Alis government dropped

Libya Uprising A Brief Timeline

February 17: the official day of the revolt; an effort to bring thousand of protesters into the streets February 20: Rebels take Benghazi. Hundreds killed in fighting. Gaddafi starts launching sporadic attacks March 10: Gaddafi bombs cities; pushes back protesters. Rebels push for a no-fly zone over Libya

March 19: NATO starts bombing Libya

May 25: Due to NATO bombing and rebels counter-offensive, Gaddafis forces withdraw from Misrata. Battle for Misrata declared over

May-August: Struggle continues with rebels progressing, taking control of cities

August 20-21: Tripoli revolts. Green Square renamed Martyrs square.

September 15: Nicholas Sarkozy and David Cameron land in Libya September 16: UN lifts sanctions off Libya; officially recognizes NTC (National Transitional Council) as Libyas sole representative October 13-19: NTC conquers the final bastions of Gaddafi loyalists October 18: Hillary Clinton pays an unannounced visit to Libya October 20: NTC captures Sirte; capture and kill Gaddafi October 23: NTCs leader Mustafa Abdel Jalil declares the liberation of Libya; promises to uphold the Islamic law

October 20-24: The bodies of Gaddafi, his son and former aide put in public display in Misrata October 24: NTC orders probe into Gaddafis death after international pressure October 25: NTC buries Gaddafi, his son Mutassim and the former aide at a secret location in the desert

What Followed: Tunisia

January: The process to form the new government begins Leader of the banned Congress for the Republic Party (CPR), Marcef Manzouki returns after years of exile in Paris Leader of the banned Islamist Ennahda Party, Rachid Ghannouchi returns after 22 years of exile Feb-March: Beji Caid-Essebsi replaces Mohammad Ghannouchi as the interim PM. RCD dissolves. May: Tunisian Higher Election Authority (ISIE) set up to oversee constituent assembly elections

June: Ben Ali and his wife sentenced in absentia to 35 years in prison

October 23: Constituent Assembly elections take place. More than 90% turnout The Islamist Ennahda party wins the election with 41.5% of votes, followed by leftist CPR with 13.8% and Ettakotal with 9.7% Hamadi Jbeli is the partys preferred choice as the PM candidate

The New Players

Ettakotal (Democratic Forum for Labour and

Liberties)

Congress Party for the Republic (CPR)

Ennahda (The Renaissance)

Founded under the name of Movement of the Islamic Tendency in 1981 by Rached Al-Ghannouchi
Al-Ghannouchi returned to Tunisia on January 30, 2011 after 22 years of exile in London Ghannouchi called a thought leader in the process of the Islamist embrace of equal citizenship and equal rights Began to be described as moderate Islamists in the 80s; advocated democracy and a Tunisian form of Islamism 1989-91: Ennahda banned to participate in elections, thousands of activists jailed by Ben Ali In the wake of the Tunisian Revolution, the party legalized on March 1, 2011

Has won the majority of votes in the recently held elections Biggest and best organized party in Tunisia, outdistancing its more secular counterparts Seeks to form an alliance with the CPR and Ettakotal Currently rejects radical Islamism supports workers rights and womens education and states that Sharia law has no place in Tunisia

What Followed: Libya

NTC has been given official recognition by the UN. Mustafa Abdel Jalil becomes the interim leader

UN has called a for probe into Gaddafis death after the footage of his last moments went public October 31: NATO formally ends Libya mission October 31: UNSC votes unanimously to end the no-fly zone over Libya Interim PM Mahmoud Jibril steps down to make way for Abdurrahim El Keib NTC is supposed to elect the cabinet a month from the liberation Under the NTC Roadmap: elections to be held within 8 months for a national assembly that will spend a year drawing up a new constitution before a parliamentary poll

National Transitional Council

Current de facto government of Libya

Established by anti-Gaddafi forces during the 2011 Libyan uprising to act as the face of the revolution

NTC lead the Libyan uprising and the rebels in occupying the cities
March 5, 2011: NTC declared itself to be the only legitimate body representing the people of Libya and the Libyan state Chaired by Mustafa Abdul Jalil. Jalil became the Justice Minister in the Gaddafi government in 2007 Jalil, as a judge, known for ruling consistently against the regime. Appreciated by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch

The Response of the West

US supported Ben Alis administration for many years, but was a mute spectator to his ouster

The Wests response to the uprising has been described as hesitant and unwilling
US stayed largely silent till the time Ben Ali fled, upholding their policy of stability over democracy France was a strong supporter of the administration throughout. But in the end, it turned its back towards Ben Alis regime In October though, President Obama pledged US support for Tunisias political and financial development

The approach towards Libya was very aggressive on the Wests part French, British, Italian and Russian supplied weapons to proGaddafi forces initially but they soon changed their allegiance Before NATO began the attacks, Obama administration imposed economic sanctions on Libya, froze its assets in the US and took Gaddafis case to the International Criminal Court The West whole-heartedly supported NATOs bombing on proGaddafis forces

Worlds Reaction to Gaddafis Death

US President Barack Obama: For four decades, the Gaddafi regime ruled the Libyan people with an iron fist. Their human rights were denied. Innocent civilians were detained, beaten and killed. Libya's wealth was squandered and enormous potential of Libyan people was held back and terror was used as a political weapon. Today we can definitively say that the Gaddafi regime has come to an end.

British PM David Cameron: People in Libya today have an even greater chance after this news of building themselves a strong and democratic future.
French President Nicolas Sarkozy: The disappearance of Muammar Gaddafi is a major step forward in the battle fought for more than eight months by the Libyan people to liberate themselves from the dictatorial and violent regime imposed on them for more than 40 years.

After the Uprising

Doubts hover around Ennahdas Islamic status in Tunisia Ennahda trying hard to portray itself as moderate; seeking coalition with CPR and Ettakotal The future of the government under National Transitional Council (in Libya) too uncertain owing to its allegiance to Islamic style of governance Mustafa Abdel Jalil (NTCs head) promised to scrap laws not conforming to Islamic jurisprudence Seemingly, both Tunisia and Libya will maintain a friendly and cooperative relationship with the west, though maintaining a careful stance against too much intervention.

References

www.english.aljazeera.net www.guardian.co.uk www.al-bab.com www.juancole.com The North AfricanMiddle East Uprising from Tunisia to Libya by Herbert P.Bix The Arab Spring and The Future of US Interests by W. Andrew Terill

CONTENTS

What is a war? International Law Human Security and Rights UN/UNSC Formation of the NATO Interventions in the past 2 decades The case FOR interventions The case AGAINST interventions Responsibility to Protect (RtoP) The case of Libya The implications of the case of Libya Conclusion

WHAT IS A WAR?

D-Day invasion on 6th June, 1944 at Normandy

WHAT IS A WAR?

According to 19th century strategist Carl Von Clausewitz, war is an act of force intended to compel our opponents to fulfill our will. Clausewitz distinguishes between the nature and character of war. Furthermore he also distinguishes between the objective and subjective nature of wars. Since the mid 1980s,Mary Kaldor has suggested a category of new wars. These are internal conflicts caused due to internal failure of a state. Today contemporary war is being influenced by globalization and transnational elements such as NGOs, regional and global media The emergence of non-state actors like terrorist groups.

INTERNATIONAL LAW

INTERNATIONAL LAW

It can be best understood as a set of norms and rules created and practised by nations to facilitate goals, co-existence and avoiding any conflicts or wars. In modern period law is seen as an agreement between legal subjects with mutual consent and will. Customary International Law Emergence of non-state actors such as international human rights groups, environment groups. Legal norms evolving to qualify interventions, challenging traditional ideas of state sovereignty.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND SECURITY

HUMAN RIGHTS & SECURITY

Two conceptions of human securityfreedom of want and freedom of fear. Notion of humans as rights-bearers specifically European & has grown in importance post the holocaust. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 Interventions are justified on account of gross violations of human rights and security. UN specialized agencies, NGOs play a crucial role on promoting human security. The International Criminal Court (ICC) was established in 2002, to put to book perpetrators of crimes against humanity.

UN/ UNSC

UN/UNSC
The UN was created post WWII with a view to maintain global peace and security. For this sole purpose, the UN Security Council was formed. When UNSC considers a threat to international peace, it first tries to settle it under Chapter VI of the UN Charter. The council then takes measures to enforce its decisions under Chapter VII and on rare occasions authorizes all necessary means, even military action. In the case of Libya the UNSC Resolution 1973 was implemented. Issues of peace and security also include human rights and security, overrunning notions of non-intervention and selfdetermination.

UN/ UNSC
Article 2(7) of the UN charter states that Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the UN to intervene in matters which are essentially within domestic jurisdiction of any state. 1991-GA resolution held that The sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity of States must be fully respected in accordance with the charter of the UN. In this context, humanitarian assistance should be provided with the consent of affected and in principle on the basis of an appeal by the affected country. (A/RES/46/182). In the outcome document of the 2005 World Summit, the GA held that if national authorities are manifestly failing to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity and if peaceful means are inadequate, the international community could take collective action through the UNSC according to Chapter VII of the charter. (A/RES/60/1, para 138 and 139.

FORMATION OF NATO

FORMATION OF NATO

NATO is an organisation that includes countries of Europe and North America. It was formed post WWII in want of mutual defense alliance and to counter the perception of communist expansion. Post the fall of the communist bloc, the NATO has primarily been involved in military interventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, Iraq etc.

Interventions in past 2 decades

Clockwise from top: A photo of a skull in Rwanda, A soldier being lowered on Saddam Husseins shoulder in Iraq, Troops in Afghanistan.

Interventions in past 2 decades

In the face of Saddam Husseins oppression of the Kurds in the aftermath of the 1991 Gulf War, the US, British, French and Dutch military forces intervened to provide safe havens. The solidarity vanished when US sustained casualties. The French intervened in Rwanda in 1994, for fear of their influence waning once the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) comes to power. NATOs intervention in Kosovo in 1999 was a mix of humanitarian concern and national interest.

Interventions in past 2 decades

Post 9/11 attacks on the pretext of intervening for humanitarian purposes the US invaded Iraq and Afghanistan to fight its war against terror. Most controversial has been the failure of international community to respond to the Darfur crisis. Reasons range from strong refusal by Sudanese govt., the case of Iraq & Afghanistan and vested interests.

The case FOR intervention

The legal argument, also labeled as counterrestrictionist. The moral case, deriving from virtue of common humanity. Human rights violations in other parts, have an effect on everybody.

The case AGAINST intervention

No basis for humanitarian intervention in International law. States do not intervene for primarily humanitarian reasons. States are not allowed to risk the lives of their soldiers to save strangers. Intervention does not work

Responsibility to Protect (RtoP)

Responsibility to Protect (RtoP)

The ICISS in its 2001 RtoP report attempted to resolve issues of human rights & sovereignty. It placed the onus of protecting citizens on the states. If states fail or are unwilling, the :principle of non-intervention yields to the international responsibility to protect (ICISS 2001:xi). It recognized that the UNSC as the sole authority to authorize. It has a 3 pronged approach of prevention, action and rebuilding. The Rtop was adopted in the 2005 World Summit. The intervention in Libya is the first under the RtoP umbrella.

The Case of Libya

The Case of Libya

Resolution 1970 was adopted on 26th February 2011, deploring what it called the gross and systematic violation of human rights in strife-torn Libya & referred the situation to the ICC. As the crisis escalated, the NTC appealed to the international community to enforce a no-fly zone. On 19th March, 2011 the Resolution 1973 was adopted following which the military intervention of Libya began. It called for all necessary means to protect civilians and civilian populated areas from attack which might include crimes against humanity.

The Case of Libya

Representatives of UK, US, France, NATO & particularly the Arab League & the League of Arab Nations supported the text. The BRIC nations abstained from voting. Fighting in Libya ended with the capture and death of Muammar Gaddafi on 20th October,2011. Following which on 27th October, 2011 the UNSC voted to end NATOs presence in Libya by 31st October. The intervention is now regarded as a qualified success.

Implications of the Case of Libya

Analysis drawn from the special roundtable conducted by the Carnegie Council for their Ethics and International Affairs Journal. Contributors: Jennifer Welsh (Oxford), Simon Chesterman (NYU), Alex J. Bellamy (Queensland), James Pattison (Manchester), and Thomas G. Weiss (City University of NY).

RtoP Alive and Well After Libya by Thomas G. Weiss

Due to the inconsistent and inconclusive interventions in the 1990s, States sought guidance. With RtoP, military interventions became palatable. However, military intervention is not the only panacea.

The Ethics of Humanitarian Intervention in Libya by James Pattison

Raises the just cause question and the right intention question. Mission Creep- Was it protection of civilians or removal of Gaddafi? The long-term consequences. Selectivity- why do international community fail to act in similar such cases.

Libya and the RtoP: The Exception and the Norm by Alex J. Bellamy

The Resolution 1973 mentioned RtoP explicitly for the first time. Case of Libya different on 2 accountsclarity of threat and a short time frame. Prevention of mass atrocities require a combination of different methods. The will and consensus not available everytime. Examples of Kenya, Guinea, Ivory Coast The Libyan case was patchy and imperfect. RtoP should focus on reducing no. of cases so acute that they require urgent decision making of this sort.

Civilian Protection in Libya: Putting Coercion & Controversy back in RtoP by Jennifer Welsh

Through Resolution 1973, the UNSC effectively inserted itself in the struggle. The 3 pillars of RtoP. Pillar 3 which states international responsibility to RtoP crimes, should elaborate the coercive tools that can be employed.

Leading from Behind: The RtoP, the Obama Doctrine & Humanitarian Intervention after Libya by Simon Chesterman

In legal terms, the UNSC authorisation hardly ground-breaking. Neither RtoP or Res. 1973 have changed the standing prohibition on the use of force outside self-defense & SC authorized enforcement action. RtoP more political.RtoP confers public power, allocation of responsibility & jurisdiction. Military- ability to intervene

CONCLUSION

Though the Libyan case has finally given RtoP some teeth and its now the best understood form of codification for intervention, interventions at best are a palliative for immediate solutions. For long term solutions, it requires a never-ending commitment from the side of the intervening states. However, in this realist world, dictated by vested interests, such a possibility seems distant.

REFERENCES:

The Globalization of World Politics, Baylis and Smith Ethics and International Affairs Journal, Carnegie Council UN Charter UNDP 1994 UDHR 1948 Resolution 1973: Security Council Approves No flyzone over Libya, authorizing all necessary measures to protect civilians, by vote of 10 in favour with 5 abstentions Resolution 1970: In a swift, decisive action, Security Council imposes tough measures on Libyan regime, adopting resolution 1970 in the wake of crackdown on protestors. Images courtesy: Google, Fotosearch, NATO directory, UN

What did Social Media do?

Tunisia

What triggered the whole uprising was a video (first posted on Facebook) of the selfemollition of street vendor Mohamed Bouazizi which went viral and awakened the people about the situation in Tunisia. The video and the feedback and comments on it sparked nationwide protests on the streets.

Virtual elements such as blogs, mobile messaging, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and so on were instrumental in fueling the protest and mediating their live coverage. The presence of the protest on Social networking sites was brought to local and international media attention. For example Al Jazeera referenced Facebook for the live coverage of protests. Social media was said to be the effective and uncensored news agency.

The citizens of Tunisia began to flock social media networks which fed and fuelled new stations like- Al jazeera, BBC Arabic, France 24, Al-Hiwar, etc. Tens of thousands joined Facebook groups and got to know about the new develepmonts and mobilized for further action. Social activism was in full swing on Facebook, Twitter and blogs.

On state media there has been systematic and organised silence, placing a blackout about the riots and subsequently started a campaign of demonising the protester as thugs and outlaws. In contrast, public defiance and the display of popular anger were sustained by new media outlets, like live video streaming. Bloggers and Facebook pages became sites of networking and spaces for exchanging and disseminating news about the protests.

Notices like, "Demonstration at 4pm, meet in town centre", became common features of social activism on Facebook pages. Faced with a fierce and unprecedented cyber war, and in an attempt to curb the influential impact of such networks, the government decided to employ new measures of hacking and jamming Facebook pages and personal home pages of activists. 'Error 404', an error message that comes up on computer screens whenever someone's account is hacked, became known to activists as 'Ammar 404', taking the name of the government's internet censor.

Tunileaks was founded and made immensely popular. Bloggers and social activities on the internet and satellite TV forced former president Ben Ali to flee the country. Tunisians declared Victory on social networks and Twitter went berserk with traffic. The subsequent caretaker government promised to open up to the outraged public by freeing the media, securing justice for all, and an invitation to the 'opposition' for a free dialogue.

Libya

Libya protest news site on Facebook devoted to ongoing revolution. The site currently has several likes and posts about the events unfolding. One of the libya news and media Facebook pages has over 21,500 likes on Facebook, with plenty of people posting their thoughts on the recent events in Libya. The micro-blogging site was an incredibly powerful tool during moments of political upheaval, giving real time updates about the protest. Twitter handles such as @Feb17Libya and @Shabablibya gained mass popularity.

Youtube made the world witness history through the protest videos uploaded by citizens. The Al Jazeera Live Blog used video, audio, text, RSS feeds, tags, and recommendation feeds to make the most for their visitors. In the second week of February 2011, when the Government shut down the internet, this move backfired as the protest went out on the streets and a day of rage was decided as the day the civil war would commence on the 17th of February 2011. The news of Gaddafis death and photos spread instantly on twitter and Facebook

How did social media help create and sustain a revolution?

Social media facilitates the conveyance of information in an important new way, from ordinary people on the ground. Social media spreads the capacity to document human rights abuses beyond the mainstream media and nongovernment organisations in the many parts of the globe now reached by the internet.

Social media amplifies the message of those connected.

An important new vista in access to information has arisen on the internet outside the social media field with the advent of Wikileaks, a whistleblower website which solicits information, including classified information, and publicises that information in its primary form, largely but not totally unredacted, on its site and in partnership with various newspapers around the world.

A reaction from people is bound to get amplified in a case where relevant sites are blocked by certain repressive States. Social media aided in Grassroots mobilization.
Organizes the rise of civil society and active citizenship. I acts as a Counter rumour or propaganda tool.

It helps people analyze government statements.

What could have been the reason it worked

Social Constructionist Theory

Social constructionism is a sociological theory of knowledge that considers how social phenomena or objects of consciousness develop in social contexts. A social construction (also called a social construct) is a concept or practice that is the construct (or artefact) of a particular group. In the context of the Arab Spring and Social media, a social construct was created in the virtual space which lead to a mass uprising as people could identify with the creators of the revolution in the virtual spaces and their discontent which was the same as masses. It was the social construction of a reality.

Denis McQuail, One-toMany

Denis McQuail in his theory of Mass Communication, mentions how in a system where communication is involved at such a large scale it is bound to spread at a rapid rate through a system wherein the information spreads from one to many and from each of those many to a further number. It creates a trickle down effect. In the Arab Spring, the protest started with a little spark, and before anyone could imagine through the spread of information online and videos going viral, it turned into a massive revolution.

Skeptics Argue Otherwise

Malcolm Gladwell
One prominent sceptic regarding the role of social media in progressive social and political change is the New Yorkers Malcolm Gladwell. He argues in an article published in October 2010 that real social change is brought about by high risk meaningful activism.

Social media connections promote weak ties and low risk activism, so called slacktivism. The liking of something on Facebook, or the retweeting of a story, require little effort, yet might lull the protagonists into thinking they are doing something meaningful. Successful activism requires strategic hierarchies, with a careful and precise allocation of tasks,

Networks dont have a centralized leadership structure and clear lines of authority, they have real difficulty reaching consensus and setting goals. Social media is a conservative force in promoting activism as it distracts people from real activism, perhaps by deluding them into thinking that they are in fact changing things when all they are probably doing is adapting within the existing status quo.

While social media may create quicker and louder conversations, it may also generate shallower and shorter conversations which are easily displaced by the next new big thing.

Conclusion

References

www.washingtonpost.com www.wikileaks.com www.neteffect.com www.libyaliveblog.com www.al-jazeera.com www.wikipedia.com www.google.co.in www.sociologicalimages.com Social Media, Human Rights and Political Change- Sarah Joseph Social Media in the Arab World- Jeffry Ghannam Various Facebook pages and Blogs

Media and Conflict

Media , conflict and war are deeply interconnected. People learn about conflict and violence through media. Media not only informs us about conflict but helps to formulate public opinion.

This idea is linked with the normative theory of Social Responsibilty.

Keeping in mind the social responsibility media model, the media can and the media has played a very important role during conflicts. Despite the fact that numerous media theories state that the media has a social responsibility towards the society in reality the dual-nature of media hinders its social purpose. Dual-nature of media creates numerous filters that decide what will make news. 'If it bleeds, it leads'

News which will grab eyeballs makes it to the front page. Conflict and violence make news as news is perceived as whats exciting and different. News is what will be in sync with the political economy of media. Media owners remain more inclined to make money by capitalizing on tensions and conflict. Bad news is good news

The basic criterion of news value helps cover conflict extensively.

Immediacy, drama, simplicity, impact and ethnocentrism etc. News media are important actors in conflict.

But they are not the most important players.

They react to events rather than initiate them.

CNN Effect

Defines the nexus between media power and foreign policy. Media images fire public opinion and demand immediate action from the government. Its a catchall phrase Postulates that the development of 24hour international television news channels have a major impact on the conduct of a countrys foreign policy .

Helps shape and reshape the foreign policy.

The strength of the fourth estate has an impact on the government.

The strength/ power has increased with the arrival of new technology. The media may function alternately or simultaneously as a policy agenda-setting agent, an impediment to the achievement of desired policy goals, and an accelerant to policy decision making.

1. 2. 3.

24/7 media has radically altered the way foreign policy is conducted. It has also destroyed the concept of a "news cycle."

CNN effect- Myths

It makes life more difficult for foreign policy makers. It dictates what's on the foreign policy agenda. Pictures of suffering force officials to intervene.

There is nothing officials can do about the CNN Effect.

TIME Magazine - History

Time is the world's largest weekly news magazine with a domestic audience of 20 million and a global audience of 25 million. It was established on March 3, 1923.
Termed as the worlds most influential magazine. TIME has documented a comprehensive history- both written and photographic- of the last century. Though it is a weekly magazine special commemorative issues are also published to mark special events.

The magazine is dominated by Republican point of view TIME stories often also have a strong point of view but reflect open-minded reporting rather than partisan biases. Based in New York City, TIME has eight International Editions in more than 150 countries. Asian edition (Time Asia) is based in Hong Kong.

TIME ASIA- Editorial

Asia Editor- Zoher Abdoolcarim Senior Editor- Liam Fitzpatrick Associate Editors- Krista Mahr, Emily Rauhala

TIME US and ASIA mostly publish the same articles. Few reporters, mostly guest columnists and contributors. The editorial staff is heavily dominated by westerners.

Structure of the Magazine

A single photograph dominates the cover. Inbox Briefings World Cover Story Features Editorial 10 Questions

Number of Stories
Cover Stories
7

6
5 4 3 2 1 0

Cover Stories

Arab Spring

Libya

Tunisia

Month Wise
12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Arab Spring
Tunisia Libya

Inbox, Briefing, World

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

INBOX
Briefing World

Photographs60 50 40 Feature Cover

30
20 10 0 Arab Spring Libya Tunisia

Spread
Full Page Half Others Black & White

Month Wise
Photographs
30 25

20 15
10 5 0

Photographs

Conclusion

Though the event broke out in Dec, no till Jan 24. First covered in briefings, World and then moves on to features, cover stories, editorials.

The change in terminology used to describe the Tunisian dictator.

From role model to Authoritarian

Similar terms used to describe the regime of Hosini Mobarak and his supporters.

A stark difference between how Gaddafis regime is described and that of USs allies.
TIME states that it is a revolution and not an evolution(Feb 14) The Islamists have won. (Nov 7)

The role of US has constantly been highlighted in bringing democracy.

While describing the Arab world stereotypes have been used (Nov 7, Sep5)

Similar tactics that were employed in Iraq and Afghanistan were used to justify the NATO intervention (women, democracy). Photographs have been used extensively to explain the Arab Spring.
From small thumbnails to photo features. The use of black and white and red.

Max no. of articles and photographs in the months preceding and immediately following the NATO intervention.

Problems faced by the Media

Authoritarian governments rarely have any free media. State- owned media houses, thus media used by government. Not used to express alternative views Journalists were not given the permission to enter countries where Arab Spring took place. In Libya journalists started getting access into those areas which were controlled by the rebels.

Al- Jazeera was the only channel that constantly and consistently reported about the Arab springright from Dec. It had easier access- more regional than international.

Despite being pro- revolution Al- Jazeera received flak for not reporting much on Bahrain. (Qatari) Barely any academic work on the role of international media in the Arab spring.

Created by: Namrata Tibrewal (history &

background) Manira Chaudhary (aftermath & implications) Anubha Sarkar (military intervention) Arushi Kapoor (role of social media) Akanksha Narain (media coverage)

 Thank you for your attention