Motivation

Motivation The processes that account for an individuals willingness to expert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. Need A need is an internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. An unsatisfied need creates tension, which an individual reduces by exerting effort.

Motivation
Motivation Process (Need-Satisfying Process)

Unsatisfied Need

Tension

Effort

Satisfied Need

Tension Reduction

Intensity Direction Persistence

Early Theories of Motivation

Three early theories (probably the most widely known approaches to employee motivation) They are Maslows hierarchy of needs McGregors Theories X and Y Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory Better know these early theories because (1) they represent the foundation from which contemporary motivation theories were developed, and (2) practicing managers continue to regularly use these theories and their terminology in explaining employee motivation.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

The best-known theory of motivation is probably Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs theory.

Maslow was a psychologist who proposed that

within every person is hierarchy of five needs.

The hierarchy of five needs

1.
2.

Physiological needs: Food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and other physical requirements.
Safety needs: Security and protection from physical and emotional harm, as well as assurance that physical needs will continue to be met. Social needs: Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem needs: Internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. Self-actualization needs: Growth, achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment; the drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

3. 4.

5.

Maslow argued that

each level in the needs hierarchy must be substantially satisfied before the next is activated once a need is substantially satisfied it no longer motivates behaviour.

Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower levels.
physiological and safety needs were considered lowerorder needs; social esteem, and self-actualization needs were considered higher-order needs. The difference was that higher-order needs are satisfied internally while lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied externally.

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform.

Theory Y The assumption that employees are creative, enjoy work, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction. What did McGregors analysis imply about motivation?
Theory X assumed that lower-order needs dominated individuals, and Theory Y assumed that higher-order needs dominated.

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygience Theory

The motivation theory that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors Factors that eliminate job dissatisfaction, but dont motivate. Motivation Factors that increase job satisfaction and motivation.

Motivators Achievement Recognition Work Itself Responsibility Advancement Growth

Hygiene Factors Supervision Company Policy Relationship with Supervisor Working Conditions Salary Relationship with Peers Personal Life Relationship with Subordinates Status Security Neutral Extremely Dissatisfied

Extremely Satisfied

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygience Theory

Herzberg proposed: the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction, and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction

The factors that led to job satisfaction were separate and distinct from those that led to job dissatisfaction. Managers who sought to eliminate factors that created job dissatisfaction could bring about workplace harmony but not necessarily motivation. The extrinsic factors that create job dissatisfaction were called hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people wont be dissatisfied, but they wont be satisfied (or motivated) either. To motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested emphasizing motivators, the intrinsic factors that increase job satisfaction.

Traditional View

Satisfied

Dissatisfied

Herzbergs View

Motivators Satisfaction No Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Six contemporary motivation approaches:
1. 2.

Three-Needs Theory Goal-Setting Theory

3.
4. 5. 6.

Reinforcement Theory
Designing Motivating Jobs Equity Theory Expectancy Theory

1. Three-Needs Theory by David McClelland

The motivation theory that says three acquired (not innate) needs achievement, power, and affiliation are major motives in work
Need for achievement the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed; Need for power the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise; Need for affiliation the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

2. Goal-Setting Theory

There is substantial support for the proposition that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. The proposition is known as goal-setting theory.

-Goals are public -Individual has internal locus of control -Self-set goals Self-Efficacy

Committed to Achieving Goals Accepted

Motivation (intention to work toward goal)

Self-Generated Feedback on Progress

Higher Performance plus Goal Achievement

-Specific -Difficult Participation in Setting

National Culture

The key to reinforcement theory is that it ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs. Instead, it focuses solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action. this idea helps explain why publishers such as Pearson Education may include incentive clauses in authors contracts. If every time an author submits a completed chapter, the company sends an advance check against future royalties, the person is motivated to keep submitting chapters.

Following reinforcement theory,

managers can influence employees behaviour by reinforcing actions they deem desirable.
Because the emphasis is on positive reinforcement, not punishment, managers should ignore, not punish, unfavorable behaviour. Even though punishment eliminates undesired behaviour faster than non-reinforcement does, its effect is often only temporary and may later have unpleasant side effects including dysfunctional behaviour such as workplace conflicts, absenteeism, and turnover.

4. Designing Motivating Jobs Job design refers to the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.

The jobs that people perform in an organization should not to form by chance. Managers should design jobs deliberately and thoughtfully to reflect the demands of the changing environment, the organizations technology, and its employees skills, abilities, and preferences. When jobs are designed with those things in mind, employees are motivated to work hard.

Some ways that managers design motivating jobs

Job Enlargement The horizontal expansion of a job by increasing job scope.

Job Scope The number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated. For instance a dental hygienists job could be enlarged so that in addition to dental cleaning, he or she is pulling patients files, re-filing them when finished, and cleaning and storing instruments.

Some ways that managers design motivating jobs

Job Enrichment The vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluating responsibilities.

Employees are empowered to assume some of the tasks typically done by their managers. The tasks in an enriched job should allow workers to do a complete activity with increased freedom, independence, and responsibility. These tasks should also provide feedback so that individuals can assess and correct their own performance. Job enrichment increases job depth. Job depth The degree of control employees have over their work.

Job Enrichment The vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluating responsibilities.

Employees are empowered to assume some of the tasks typically done by their managers. The tasks in an enriched job should allow workers to do a complete activity with increased freedom, independence, and responsibility. These tasks should also provide feedback so that individuals can assess and correct their own performance. Job enrichment increases job depth. Job depth The degree of control employees have over their work.

Job Characteristics Model neither of these job design approaches, job enlargement and job enrichment, provided a conceptual framework for analyzing jobs or for guiding managers in designing motivating jobs. Job Characteristics Model (JCM) offers such a framework.

It identifies five primary job characteristics, their relationships, and their impact on employee productivity, motivation, and satisfaction. According to JCM, any job can be described in terms of five core dimensions, defined as follows:

Some ways that managers design motivating jobs

i. Skill variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety of activities so that an employee can use a number of different skills and talents. ii. Task identity: The degree to which job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. iii. Task significance: The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. iv. Autonomy: The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. v. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out work activities required by a job results in the individuals obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

4. Designing Motivating Jobs

Some ways that managers design motivating jobs Job Characteristics Model
Core Job Dimensions Critical Psychological States Personal and Work Outcomes

Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance

Experienced meaningfulness of the work

High Internal Work Motivation High Satisfaction With the Work

Autonomy Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work Low Absenteeism And Turnover Low Absenteeism And Turnover

Feedback

Knowledge of the actual Results of the work activities

Strength of Employee Growth Need

Some ways that managers design motivating jobs

JCM provides specific guidance to managers for job design. The following suggestions, which are based on the JCM, specify the types of changes in jobs that are most likely to lead to improvement in each of the five core job dimensions.

Combine tasks. Managers should put fragmented tasks back together to form a new, larger module of work (job enlargement) to increase skill variety and task identity. Create natural work units. Managers should design tasks that form an indefinable and meaningful whole to increase employee ownership of the work and encourage employees to view their work as meaningful and important rather than as irrelevant and boring.

Establish client relationships. The client is the external or internal user of the product or service that the employee works on. Whenever possible, managers should establish direct relationships between workers and their clients to increase skill variety, autonomy, and feedback. Expand jobs vertically. Vertical expansion (job enrichment) gives employees responsibilities and controls that were formerly reserved for managers. It partially closes the gap between the doing and the controlling aspects of the job and increases employee autonomy. Open feedback channels. Feedback lets employees know how well theyre performing their jobs and whether their performance is improving, deteriorating, or remaining constant. Ideally, employees should receive performance feedback directly as they do their jobs rather than from managers on an occasional basis.

5. Equity Theory The term equity is related to the concept of fairness and equal treatment compared with others who behave in similar ways. Equity theory developed by J. Stacey Adams, proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others. If an employee perceives that her situation is fair that justice prevails. However, if the ratio is unequal, inequity exists and she views herself as underrewarded or overrewareded. When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something about it.

What will employees do when they perceive an inequity? Equity theory proposes that employees might distort either their own or others inputs or outcomes, behave in some way to induce other to change their inputs or outcomes, behave in some way to change their own inputs or outcomes, choose a different comparison, or

quit their job.

6. Expectancy Theory The most comprehensive and widely accepted explanation of employee motivation to date by Victor Vroom.

The theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way base do the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

It includes three variables or relationships:

i.

Expectancy or effort-performance linkage is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance.. ii. Instrumentality or performance-reward linkage is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level is instrumental in attaining the desired outcome. iii. Valence or attractiveness of reward is the importance that the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job. Valence considers both the goals and needs of the individual.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

6. Expectancy Theory
Simplified Expectancy Model
A Individual Effort Individual Performance B Organizational Rewards C Individual Goals

= Effort-performance linkage = Performance-reward linkage = Attractiveness of reward

The key to expectancy theory is understanding an individual's goal and the linkage between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and finally between rewards and individual goal satisfaction.

It emphasizes payoffs, or rewards. As a result, we have to believe that the rewards an organization is offering align with what the individual wants. The theory recognizes that there is no universal principle for explaining what motivates individuals and thus stresses that managers understand why employees view certain outcomes as attractive or unattractive.
Also expectancy theory emphasizes expected behaviours.