What is Control Engineering?

engineering discipline that focuses on the mathematical modeling systems of a diverse nature, analyzing their dynamic behavior, and using control theory to make a controller that will cause the systems to behave in a desired manner. Control engineering is closely related to electrical engineering, as electronic circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques.

What is meant by Control?

Control the process in a system in which one or several input variables influence other output variables as a result of the laws pertaining to the system. Controlling is characterized by the open-loop sequence of actions via the single transfer element or the control chain. (according to DIN 19226)

As shown in the Fig.1, the input variables xe ..acting on this system are linked in a self- contained box and issued as output variables xa.. and these variables now act on the energy flow or mass flow to be controlled. Fig 1.1 xe1 xe2 xa1 xe3 xa2

In general: xa = f ( xe )
The term control is often applied to the complete system in which controlling takes place, not only to the control operation itself.

What is meant by Control?

The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It employs many of the principles in control engineering, and is a well-established field in its own right.

Process Control (process control engineering):

an engineering discipline that deals with architecture, mechanisms, and algorithms for controlling the output of a specific process. uses analog sensors to monitor real-world signals and digital computers to do the analysis and controlling; makes extensive use of analog/digital and digital/analog conversion.

In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:

Discrete Found in many manufacturing, motion and packaging applications, discrete process control systems use a device called a programmable logic controller (PLC) to read a set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of logic statements, and generate a set of outputs. Robotic assembly, such as that found in automotive production, can also be characterized as discrete process control.

In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:

Batch Some applications require that specific quantities of raw materials be combined in specific ways for particular duration to produce an intermediate or end result. One example is the production of adhesives and glues, which normally require the mixing of raw materials in a heated vessel for a period of time to form a quantity of end product.

In practice, process control systems can be characterized as one or more of the following forms:

Continuous Often, a physical system is represented though variables that are smooth and uninterrupted in time. The control of the water temperature in a heating jacket, for example, is an example of continuous process control. Hybrid - applications having elements of discrete, batch and continuous process control

What is a Control System?

a device or set of devices that manage the behavior of other devices. an interconnection of components (mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal or hydraulic) connected or related in such a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system to maintain a desired output.

What is a Controller?
a component of a system that makes it operate within desired limits. a device that attempts to control the states or outputs of a dynamic system. Generally, it accomplishes this using feedback to correct disturbances to the system; known as closed-loop control.

Example 1.1:
If the output of an air compressor is controlled by the quantity drawn in, then: The opening and closing of the valve is the control operation The valve, whose setting affects the quantity drawn in, is the control element The opening provided by the valve is the controlled variable y. The handwheel with which the valve is actuated is the control device. The varying load on the compressed air system caused by the users that affects the control system is the disturbance z. This also applies to speed fluctuations or variations in the degree of efficiency caused by the compressor. On the account of the open action loop of the control system, it is not possible to compensate for such disturbance variables.

Types of control loops:

open-loop controller does not use feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamic system. Openloop control is used for systems that are sufficiently well characterized to predict what inputs are necessary to achieve the desired states or outputs. E.g. the velocity of a motor may be well characterized for the voltage fed into it, in which case feedback may not be necessary. closed-loop controller uses feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamic system.

Fig. 1.2 shows the block diagram representing an openloop control itself together with the system to be controlled.
Fig. 1.2
Disturbance z1
Controlled System

Energy/Mass Flow

Controller Output y
Controller

Sequence of Actions (Action Loop)

Disturbance z2

Fig. 1.3 Closed-Loop Controller

Disturbance z1 Controlled Variable x

Controlled System

Energy/ Mass Flow

Sequence of Actions
Controller Output (Error) y

Controller Controller

Command Variable w Disturbance z2

Automatic control Process in which the controlled variable is continuously measured and compared with another variable, the command variable, the process being influenced according to the result of this comparison by modifying to match the command variable. The sequence of actions resulting from this takes place in a closed loop, the control loop. The purpose of the closed loop control is to match the value of the controlled variable to the value specified by the command variable even if perfect equalization is not attained under the prevailing circumstances. (according
to DIN 19226)

Terms and Definitions:

Controlled System the part of the total system to be influenced. Actuator element that acts on the mass flow or energy flow to be controlled and is located at the input to the controlled system. Actuating path path along which the actions determining a control operation are transmitted. Controller part of the actuating path causing the controlled system to be influenced by the actuator; the control or automatic control proper whose elements link the input signals in accordance with the respective laws. Disturbance point - point at which a factor acts that is not influenced by the system and which disturbs the condition to be maintained.

Variables and their ranges in the actuating path:

Controller output y output from the controller and at the same time input variable to the control system. Controller output range yh range within which the output maybe adjusted. Desired value xA value to be acted upon by the control Control range xAh range within which the desired value may be when the control is operated properly.

Variables and their ranges in the actuating path:

Command variable w value introduced from the outside to the control chain or to the control loop whose output value is to follow in a predetermined manner (ie. setpoint device in close loop control, input signal in open loop control.) wh range of command variable Disturbance variable z variable acting from the outside that influences the intended action of the control. zh range within which the disturbance variable may be allowed without adversely affecting the operability of the control.

Example 2: House heating/ Air-conditioning system

In this example:
The thermostat acts as the controller which directs the activities of the heater. heater or the air-conditioner is the processor that warms or cools the air inside the house. the air coming into the heater or air-conditioner is the input. the air going out of the heater or air conditioner is its output. the air temperature readings inside the house are the feedbacks. and finally, the house is the environment in which the heating/air-conditioning system operates

What is feedback?
In cybernetics and control theory, feedback is a process whereby some proportion or in general, function, of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. Often this is done intentionally, in order to control the dynamic behavior of the system.

Feedback may be: negative, which tends to reduce output, or positive, which tends to increase output.

Example 3
Process: cooling a room Desired outcome: reach/ maintain a defined temperature constant over time, say 20 o C Controlled variable: temperature Input variable: temperature, since it is measured by a thermometer and is used to decide whether to cool or not Setpoint: 20 o C Manipulated variable: state of the cooler (the setting of the valve allowing chilled water to flow through it)

Signals
Signals represent information, the representation may refer to the value or the change in values of a physical dimension and may refer to transmission, processing or storage of information. In abstract considerations, signal refers to values or change in value of mathematical quantities.

Types of Signals
Analog information is assigned continuously point by point to a range of values. Digital the range to be considered is divided into a finite number of separate value ranges, and one specific item of information is assigned to each range of values. The digital group includes the binary signal, also known as an on-off signal, representing two items of information.

Types of Signals
Digital signals are used more frequently in control engineering and the digital signals are mainly in the form of binary signals. These binary signals are of considerable significance for information processing because they can easily be produced by equipment (e.g. switches) and can also be processed simply. In practice, it is essential to clearly define the relationship between range of values and signal in the case of binary signals

Analog/Digital Signals illustrated

If a continuously changeable pressure from 0 to 600kPa is considered, each intermediate value of the range maybe assigned a specific signal. If the pressure is indicated on a Bourdon pressure gauge, each intermediate value corresponds to a specific position of the pointer. The position of the pointer represents an analog signal.

Analog/Digital Signals illustrated

If the dial is now divided into separate value ranges, say in pressure steps of 50 kPa and if each range is assigned a specific item of information:
50 . . . 100 kPa, 100 . . . 150 kPa, 150 . . . 200kPa, value =1 value = 1.5 value =2,

Then, we are dealing with digital signals!

Signal Flow Diagram

The Symbolic representation of the effective relationships between the signals in a system.
Block and line of action Xe1 Linkage points Xe2 Branch points
X X X X

xa1

Representation of a closed loop in the signal flow diagram

Xe1
Xe2 = y

Xd = W - X W

Breakdown of the Control Chain

In the preceding sections, the controller has been represented as a self-contained block which can be broken down even further. A control can always be broken down by the same method to show the arrangement of the individual components; at the same time showing the signal flow. The control chain is thus characterized by a signal flow from signal input via signal processing to signal output/execution of instruction.

Breakdown of the control chain:

Actuating Device
Signal output/ execution of instruction

Processing Element

Signal Processing

Input Element

Signal input

Hardware breakdown

Signal Flow

Hardware terms:
Actuating mechanism element that has direct effect on a controlled system, moves the final control element when mechanically actuated. Actuating device consists of actuating mechanism and final control element. Signal transducer device transform an input signal as clearly as possible into an associated output signal, where necessary using auxiliary energy. Among others, this group of devices includes amplifiers and signal converters. Signal amplifier device using auxiliary energy for power amplification. Signal Converter devices in which input and output signals have different structure

Examples of Hardware Elements

Signal elements: limit switch with cam and roller operation, proximity switches, light barriers, reflex sensors, push buttons, manual switches, etc. Processing elements: Electronic logic elements, contactors, relays, valves released by pneumatic logic, etc. Final control elements: Power contactors, pneumatic and hydraulic (directional control) valves, etc. Drive elements: Electric motors, pneumatic/ hydraulic motors, cylinders, etc.

Types of controls vis a vis power requirement:

Control without auxiliary power requirement to adjust the final control element is provided by the input element of the control. Control with auxiliary energy power required to adjust the final control element is supplied entirely or in part through a source of auxiliary energy. It is possible to operate with different levels of energy within the control chain, thus it is necessary to distinguish the working energy the energy required to operate the actuating device, from the control energy that supplies the signal input and signal processing.

Based on these considerations, an extended control chain can be drawn up as follows:

Controlled System

Actuating Device

Execution of Instruction

Operative part
Signal Output

Transducer

Processing element

Controller

Processing element

Input Element

Signal element

Types of energy for operative and control part By means of suitable devices (signal transformers/ transducers) it is possible to convert one type of energy into signals of another type of energy in control engineering, one can work within the controlled system with different types of energy. In practice however, it is not always easy to select the right control system. Apart from the immediate requirements of the problem, the auxiliary requirements in particular (place of installation, environmental influences, etc.) determine the solution. These auxiliary often conflict with the simple solution to the problem that can make project engineering more difficult.

Types of energy for operative and control part If a system uses different types of energy for the operative and control parts, one refers to a mixed technology which is being used to an increasing extent in control design.
Working Media: -Mechanical -Electrical -Hydraulics -Pneumatics Criteria for system selection: -Force -Displacement -Type of motion -Speed -Physical size -Life -Sensitivity -Working safety

Characteristics of working media:

Electrical: Energy storage difficult, transmission fast, costs low. Creation of straight line motion complex and expensive, as it is necessary either to convert by mechanical means or short displacements possible with lifting magnets and only small forces possible with linear motors. Creation of rotary motion at very high efficiency, large physical size, speed limited, speed torque regulation difficult and elaborate Elements not overload-proof, not intrinsically explosion-proof.

Characteristics of working media: Hydraulics

Storage of energy only to a limited degree, limited and slow energy transmission, high energy cost. Creation of straight line motion is very simple, working speed not too high (up to 0.5m/s max.), very small dimensions, large to very large forces can be achieved. Creation of rotary motion is simple, however at not very high speed, speeds constant even at low range, high efficiency, high torque Elements are overload-proof, line installation difficult and expensive and must be insured that system is completely sealed.

Characteristics of working media: Pneumatics Energy storage presents no problem, limited and slow energy transmission, high energy costs Creation of straight line motion simple and cheap, high working speeds (1-2m/s), stroke length limited up to 2m depending on the design, force obtainable is limited up 40000N max., small dimensions. Creation of rotary motion simple and cheap, high operating costs due to poor efficiency, high speeds (up to 500,000m/min), torque obtainable not too high Elements are over-load proof, intrinsically explosionproof, very simple regulation of speed, torque, force.

What are the common types of control systems?

The common types of controllers, with many variations and/ or combinations of which are: Logic controls Pure logic controls were historically implemented by electricians with networks of relays, and designed with a notation called ladder logic. Nowadays, most such systems are constructed with programmable logic controllers.

S1

Logic Controllers
Logic controllers usually respond to switches or photoelectric cells, and cause the machinery to perform some operation. Logic systems are great for sequencing mechanical operations in places like elevators and factories, but notably poor at managing continuous process controls in such places as oil refineries and steel mills.

Logic Controllers
Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations. Logic systems may be designed with a system similar to Boolean logic. (Logic gates that are primarily electronically-controlled but can also be constructed from electromagnetic relays, electronic diodes, fluidics, optical or even mechanical elements, are commonly employed.

Linear or feedback controls

Linear controls use negative feedback to keep some desired process within an acceptable range. For example, a thermostat is a simple negative feedback control; when the temperature goes below a threshold, control starts. Systems that include feedback are prone to hunting, which is oscillation of output resulting from improperly tuned inputs of first positive then negative feedback.

Linear or feedback controls

In the furnace example, the valve may open and shut indefinitely in a cycle as the furnace heats, and then overruns the target temperature. This is bad because it stresses the system. In a furnace, the constantly turning valve will quickly wear out. More expensively, the fluctuating temperature causes expansion and contraction all through the furnace, causing unnecessary, very expensive mechanical wear. Most systems have similar problems.

Linear or feedback controls

Often, if the response of the system is slowed down enough to prevent oscillation, the system doesn't respond fast enough to work in normal situations. To resolve the problems, the most common feedback loop scheme has mathematical extensions to cope with the future and the past. This type of loop is called a Proportional-IntegralDerivative Loop, or PID loop.