Satellites

Orbital Options
A Geosynchronous satellite (GEO) completes one revolution around the world every 23 hrs and 56 minutes in order to maintain continuous positioning above the earths sub-satellite point on the equator. A medium earth orbit satellite (MEO) requires a constellation of 10 to 18 satellites in order to maintain constant coverage of the earth. A low earth orbit satellite (LEO) offers reduced signal loss since these satellites are 20 to 40 times closer to the earth in their orbits thus allowing for smaller user terminals/antennas.

Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

Characteristics of Geostationary (GEO) Orbit Systems User terminals do not have to track the satellite Only a few satellites can provide global coverage Maximum life-time (15 years or more) Often the lowest cost system and simplest in terms of tracking and high speed switching Challenges of Geostationary (GEO) Orbit Transmission latency or delay of 250 millisecond to complete up/down link Satellite antennas must be of larger aperture size to concentrate power and to create narrower beams for frequency reuse

Geostationary Orbit Today

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

Characteristics of Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Systems - Low latency or transmission delay - Less path loss or beam spreading - Easier to achieve high levels of frequency re-use - Easier to operate to low-power/low-gain ground antennas

Challenges of Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Systems - Larger number of satellites (50 to 70 satellites). Thus higher launch costs to deploy, build, and operate. - Harder to deploy, track and operate. - Shorter in-orbit lifetime due to orbital degradation

Constellation of satellites in IRIDIUM

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Characteristics of Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO) Systems Less latency and delay than GEO (but greater than LEO) Improved look angle to ground receivers in higher latitudes Fewer satellites to deploy , operate and cheaper to maintain systems than LEO (but more expensive than with GEO) Longer in-orbit lifetime than LEO systems (but less than GEO)

Challenges of Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO) Systems More satellites to deploy than GEO (10 to 18 vs. 3 to 4) Ground antennas are generally more expensive and complex because of the need to track satellites.

Components
Bus
Power Subsystem Telemetry and Command Subsystem Attitude and Control Subsystem Propulsion Subsystem

Payload
Communications Subsystem
Transponders

GPS MEO satellites

Transponders
The transponder is the brains of the satellite - provides the connection between the satellites receive and transmit antennas. Satellites can have 12 to 96 transponders plus spares, depending on the size of the satellite. A transponder bandwidth can frequently be 36 MHz, 54 MHz, or 72 MHz or it can be even wider. A transponders function is to
Receive the signal, (Signal is one trillion times weaker then when transmitted) Filter out noise, Shift the frequency to a down link frequency (to avoid interference w/uplink) Amplify for retransmission to ground

Frequency Efficiency
The vital resource in satellite communications is spectrum. As the demand for satellite services has grown, the solution has been;
To space satellites closer together, Allocate new spectrum in higher bands, Make satellite transmissions more efficient so that more bits/Hz can be transmitted, and To find ways to re-use allocated spectrum such as through geographic separation into separated cells or beams or through polarization separation

Today the satellites systems transmit more efficiently than ever before but interference is now a bigger problem - there is a basic trade off;
The higher the frequency the more spectrum that is available But, the higher the frequency the more problems with interference from other users terrestrial, unlicensed, etc.

Satellite Frequencies
There are specific frequency ranges used by commercial satellites.

L-band
1.0 2.0 GHz

(Mobile Satellite Services) Satellite Telephony

S-band 1.55 3.9 GHz C-band

3.7 6.2 GHz

(MSS)

(FSS, VSAT)
(Military/Satellite Imagery) (FSS, DTH/DBS, VSAT)

X-Band
8.0 12.0 GHz

Ku-band
11.714.5 GHz

Ka-band

(FSS broadband and inter-satellite links) 17.7 - 21.2GHz and 27.5 31 GHz

Satellite Power Systems

Main source of power is solar cell panels - new solar cells are increasingly efficient The solar cell system is backed up by battery system that provides energy during solar eclipses and other periods of outages. Typical power levels of 2 to 5 KWs for Fixed Satellite Systems and 10 to 12 KWs for Mobile and Broadcast Satellite Systems.

Batteries latest battery technology is represented by Lithium Ion systems that can provide a greater power density for longer periods of time and survive a greater depth of discharge

Satellite Services & Applications

Voice/Video/Data Communications
Rural Telephony News Gathering/Distribution Internet Trunking Corporate VSAT Networks Tele-Medicine Distance-Learning Mobile Telephony Videoconferencing Business Television Broadcast and Cable Relay VOIP & Multi-media over IP

GPS/Navigation
Position Location Timing Search and Rescue Mapping Fleet Management Security & Database Access Emergency Services

Remote Sensing
Pipeline Monitoring Infrastructure Planning Forest Fire Prevention Urban Planning Flood and Storm watches Air Pollution Management

Direct-To-Consumer
Broadband IP DTH/DBS Television Digital Audio Radio Interactive Entertainment & Games Video & Data to handhelds

Geo-spatial Services

Infrastructure / Support Services

Launch Vehicles Ground Equipment Insurance Manufacturing

Mobile Satellite Industry

Mobile Satellite Services (MSS) refer to services to mobile user terminals Use a mix of orbit types Geosynchronous (GEO) Non-geosynchronous (LEO and MEO) System sizes range from (1) GEO satellite to (66) LEO Satellites Some use Inter-Satellite Links (ISLs) Use a mix of frequencies Mostly L-Band / Some S-Band, UHF/VHF Feeder links and some services use C, Ka, and Ku-Band

Applications
Aeronautical Maritime Land

Ground Antennas
The size of the antenna depends on the satellite frequency band used, the data rate, and whether the service is bidirectional or receive only
Higher data rates require larger antennas and/or higher power Higher transmit capability of the satellite allows the antenna size to be reduced The use of spot beams instead of global beams improves VSAT link performance Receive-only antennas can be substantially smaller

MAC(Media Access Control) protocols for satellite links

ALOHA:
Every station can transmit any time Very low efficiency 18- 36 %.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

It is the oldest and most common. the available satellite channel bandwidth is broken into frequency bands for different earth stations.

 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

channels are time multiplexed sequentially Each earth station gets to transmit in a fixed time slot only. More than one time slot can be assigned to stations with more bandwidth requirements. Requires time synchronization between the Earth Stations.

CDMA : (Code Division Multiple Access)

Combination of time/frequency multiplexing ( a form of spread spectrum modulation). It provides a decentralized way of providing separate channels without timing synchronization. It is a relatively new scheme but is expected to be more common in future satellites.

VSAT Network
At the Very Small Aperture Terminal a lower performance microwave transceiver and lower gain dish antenna (smaller size) is used. VSAT networks are arranged in a star based topology. Ideal for centralized networks with a central host (Banking institutions with branches all over the country). Use the S-ALOHA and TDMA

Type of VSAT technology

TDMA Time-division Multiple Access

VSAT TECHNOLOGY SCDC Single-carrier per Channel FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access

PAMA Pre-Assigned Multiple Access

FDMA DAMA Demand Assigned Multiple Access CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

Star TDM/TDMA VSAT configuration

The Hub transmits an outbound channel () divided into time slots (TDM), which is received by all VSATs, but can be addressed to a group. Each VSAT contends for time slots on a shared TDMA inbound channel (). If they collide in a slot, they re-transmit after a random time delay.

SCPC mesh/DAMA system

A VSAT uses a TDMA CSC (command, signalling & control) () channel to request that the Master station sets up a link between the requesting VSAT and another. The Master station then informs the called VSAT on request and allocates two channels () to serve as bidirectional link between the two sites. As soon as the call is finished, the channels are returned to the pool of available capacity.

Typical Fixed Satellite Network

Applications Credit Card Validation ATM/Pay at the Pump Inventory Control Store Monitoring Electronic Pricing Training Videos In-Store Audio Broadband Internet Access Distance Learning

Network HUB

Apartment Buildings

Internet

Gas Stations Corporate Data Center/HQ

Branch Offices

Corporate Offices

Residential

Some large scale corporate networks have as many as 10,000 nodes

Applications of Satellites
1.Broadcast and Multicast of Digital Television & Radio 2.Voice and Telephony Networks 3.Data Communications and the Internet 4.Mobile and Personal Communications 5.Global Positioning System 6.Provision of Synchronisation to CDMA Cellsites

Direct-to-Home Broadcasting
The lastest step in the evolution of the satellite TV network is DTH. After a number of ill-fated ventures during the early 1980s by USCI, COMSAT, CBS, and others, DTH has established its niche in the broadcasting and cable spheres. Sky in the United Kingdom, NHK in Japan, DIRECTV and EchoStar in the United States, Sky Latin America, and STAR TV, Dish TV,Tatasky, in Asia are now established businesses, with other broadcasters following suit. Through its wide-area broadcast capability, a GEO satellite is uniquely situated to deliver the same signal throughout a country or region at an attractive cost per user.

Direct-to-Home Broadcasting
The particular economics of this delivery depend on the following factors:
The size of the receiving antennas:
Smaller antennas are easier to install and maintain and are cheaper to purchase in the first place. They are also less noticeable (something that is desirable in some cultures).

The design of the equipment:

This is simple to install and operate (An example Digital Satellite System (DSS) installation, needed to receive DIRECTV, takes only 2 hoursthat is, 105 minutes to run the cables and 15 minutes to install and point the dish).

Several users can share the same antenna:

This is sensible if the antenna is relatively expensive, say, in excess of $1,000; otherwise, each user can afford his or her own. A separate receiver is needed for each independent TV watcher (the same now applies to digital cable service).

Direct-to-Home Broadcasting
The number of transponders that can be accessed through each antenna (typically 32):
Due to the high power required as well as concerns for single-point failure, DTH operators place more than one satellite in the same orbit position in order to achieve the desired total transponder count. The more channels that are available at the same slot, the more programming choices that the user will have.

The number of TV channels that can be carried by each transponder (typically10):

Capacity is multiplied through digital compression and statistical multiplexing techniques.

Inclusion of local TV channels in the United States:

This simplifies home installation and meets a government mandate that satellites must carry these channels to all potential markets.

The ideal satellite video network delivers its programming to the smallest practical antenna on the ground, has a large number of channels available (200 or more), and permits some means for users to interact with the source of programming. A simple connection to the PSTN or broadband allows services to be ordered directly by the subscriber;

Content Delivery Networks

A content delivery network (CDN) is a point-to-multipoint satellite network that uses the broadcast feature to inject multimedia content (particularly Web pages and specific content files such as software updates and films) into remote servers and other types of caching appliances. The remote cache could be a dedicated server connected to the local infrastructure of the Internet. This greatly reduces the delay associated with accessing and downloading the particular content. Another style of CDN is to put the content directly into the PC hard drive; for this to work, the PC must have a direct connection to the remote CDN terminal. The first CDNs appeared during the Internet boom of 19992000; many have not survived the shakeout. However, some organizations are using and developing CDNs as a structure to propagate content to remote locations to bypass the cost and congestion of the terrestrial Internet. The ground equipment and software to create a CDN may be blended with that used for digital TV, The fact that the content appears to be local to the user enhances the interactive nature of the service. Thus, the central content store does not directly process requests from users.

Content Delivery Networks (UFO Movies)

Structure of a content delivery network with reliable file transfer. (Courtesy of Scopus.)

Satellite Delivered Digital Audio Radio Service

Digital Audio Radio Service (DARS) focuses on broadcasting sound programming without a visual element. S-DARS addresses itself to networks where
Spectral bandwidth is limited, Users are mobile in their cars and boats, and/or Users are isolated from major sources of radio and other mass media.

While DARS is a term generally reserved for terrestrial digital radio, the version we are interested in is Satellite delivered Digital Audio Radio Service (S-DARS).

Satellite Delivered Digital Audio Radio Service

The first to introduce S-DARS was WorldSpace, a startup company with the vision of delivering multichannel radio programming to the underdeveloped regions of Africa and Asia. Subsequently, the FCC auctioned off S-band spectrum for SDARS for the U.S. market. XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio implemented 100 digital audio radio services that are comparable to FM broadcasting. Both companies launched S-band satellites in 2001 and initiated service on a commercial basis in 2002. Through a package of subscription radio channels as well as conventional advertiser supported formats, XM and Sirius serve subscribers in their cars and homes.

Satellite Delivered Digital Audio Radio Service

Satellite construction and launch was hardly a challenge for S-DARS; however, producing the appropriate receiving terminal proved to be more time consuming than the original business plans considered.

Sanyo WorldSpace receiver.

Voice and Telephony Networks

Voice communications are fundamentally based on the interaction between two people. It was recognized very early in the development of satellite networks that the one-way propagation delay of one-quarter second imposed by the GEO tends to degrade the quality of interactive voice communications, at least for some percentage of the population. However, voice communications represent a significant satellite application due to the other advantages of the medium.

Voice and Telephony Networks

For example, many developing countries and lightly inhabited regions of developed countries continue to use satellite links in rural telephony and as an integral part of the voice network infrastructure. Furthermore, an area where satellite links are essential for voice communications is the mobile field. The PSTN within and between countries is primarily based on the requirements of voice communications, representing something in the range of 50% to 60% of all interactive traffic. The remainder consists of facsimile (fax) transmissions, low- and medium-speed data (both for private networks and access to public network services such as the Internet), and various systems for monitoring and controlling remote facilities.

Voice and Telephony Networks

The economics of satellite voice communications are substantially different from that of the fiber-based PSTN, even given the use of digital technology with both approaches. With low-cost VSAT technology and high-powered satellites at Ku- and Ka-bands, satellite voice is the cheapest and quickest way to reach remote areas where terrestrial facilities are not available. It will be more attractive to install a VSAT than to extend a fiber optic cable over a distance greater than a few hundred meters. A critical variable in this case is the cost of the VSAT, which dropped from $10,000 level in 1995 to as low as $1,500 in 2003.

Voice and Telephony Networks

High-speed Internet access has been introduced on wireline local loops through the class of technologies known as DSL. Using the basic approach of frequency division multiplexing (FDM), DSL adds the baseband bandwidth needed to allow bidirectional transfer speeds of 100 Kbps to as much as 1 Mbps over copper twisted-pair. In the absence of copper, traditional fixed wireless local loop networks cannot support DSL-like services. More recently, some service providers have begun to offer wireless Internet access using the IEEE 802.11b standard (also called Wi-Fi). The advantage of this approach is that the spectrum is unlicensed in the United States and most other countries and therefore freely available (although potentially crowded); furthermore, many individuals already carry Wi-Fi cards within their laptops. Likewise, to add high-speed access to satellite telephony amounts to providing the appropriate bandwidth over the same or even another VSAT. The notion that bandwidth is free certainly does not apply to wireless systems, whether speaking of the local or satellite varieties.

Voice and Telephony Networks

Fiber optic networks are attractive for intra- and intercity public networks and can offer broadband point-to-point transmission that is low in cost per user. The economics of long-haul fiber dictate that the operator must aggregate large volumes of telephone calls, private leased lines, and other bulk uses of bandwidth in order to make the investment pay. In 2002, the financial failure of several new fiber carriers illustrates the dilemma they face. Yet this is easier to do with a satellite because it provides a common traffic concentration point in the sky. The bandwidth is used more effectively (a principle of traffic engineering), and therefore the network can carry more telephone conversations and generate more revenue regardless of where the demand arises. Satellite networks are very expandable because all points are independent and local terrain does not influence performance. Example: Deutsche Bank, Germany, installed medium-sized Earth stations to provide banking facilities to new branches.

Data Communications and the Internet

Satellite networks are able to meet a wide variety of data communication needs of businesses, government agencies, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which include charities and religious groups. The wide-area coverage feature combined with the ability to deliver relatively wide bandwidths with a consistent level of service make satellite links attractive in the developing world as well as in the geographically larger developed countries and regions. Furthermore, the point-to-multipoint feature renders GEO satellites superior to the terrestrial Internet for the distribution of IP-based multimedia content such as Web pages and movies. The standard 36-MHz transponders, commonly used for C- and Ku-bands worldwide, can transfer up to 80 Mbps, which is suitable for wideband applications and multimedia.

Data Communications and the Internet

Satellite communication introduces a relatively large propagation delay, but this is only one factor in the overall response time. There are many contributors to response time:
The input data rate (in bits per second), The propagation delay through the link, The processing and queuing delay in data communication equipment, and Any contention for a terrestrial data line or computer processing element.

Data Communications and the Internet

The total end-to-end latency for data transfer results from several components: access lines, equipment processing, uplink and downlink propagation, and data processing in servers.

Mobile and Personal Communications

The world has experienced an explosion in the demand for wireless telephone and data communications, typically of a mobile nature. The basis for this is the technology of cellular radio systems, which connect vehicular and handheld mobile phones to the public network as if they had access by wire. Availability of cellular radio at a reasonable cost has allowed a much larger subscriber base to develop than was even possible during earlier generations of mobile phone technology. The allure of terrestrial cellular led to the development and operation of two non-GEO MSS systems:
Iridium and Globalstar

Mobile and Personal Communications

While both systems began operation, neither succeeded in the marketplace. The Inmarsat GEO satellite system grew in a much more gradual and sustained manner. As a result, Inmarsat successfully offers a range of low and medium speed digital services to user terminals on ships, aircraft, and vehicles, as well as many operated by individuals. While the satellite industry has been working to compete with conventional cellular telephone, the telephone and mobile radio business has been working to produce a more capable wireless service. With digital cellular and Personal Communications Network (PCN) and Personal Communications Service (PCS) having become the mainstay, existing and new operators have begun to pursue the third generation (3G) cellular market. Thuraya and Inmarsat 4 represent the satellite response to 3G, assuming an interesting future in mobile communications.

Iridium System using LEO satellite

The Global Positioning System (GPS)

The system was originally designed for the military, however it has been allowed for commercial use in recent years. GPS enables the user to determine its precise location anywhere on (or above) the Earth, using signals from at least 3 GPS satellites (preferably 4 or more) Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the receiver

High Altitude Platform Stations

HAP located at 21 to 25 km. Communication is between HAP and UT on the ground in a cellular arrangement. Communication also between HAP and a number of gateway stations on the ground, which provide interconnection with the fixed net.

Thank You