LECTURE 1: CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PHENOMENA

(THAT SUSTAIN LIFE)

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COURSE OUTLINE

Matter

Atoms, molecules, ions, isotopes Elements, compounds, mixtures States of matter

Bonding: ionic, covalent, polar Dispersion systems

Homogenous & heterogenous Types of dispersions: Solutions, Colloids, Suspensions

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OBJECTIVES: AT THE END OF THIS LECTURE YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO: Define and give examples of

atoms, molecules, ions, isotopes, elements, compounds, mixtures Dispersions: solutions, colloids, suspensions

Explain

the difference between homogenous & heterogenous dispersions systems how different types of binding occur

ionic, covalent, polar

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INTRODUCTION

There is great diversity in life but there are some basic unifying substances. The processes that sustain living things must be explored both in the visible and invisible realm.

DEFINITIONS
Chemical

phenomenon

Any

natural occurrence involving changes to atoms or molecules

Chemical

reactions occur to sustain

life. Chemistry is therefore necessary for the explanation of biological properties.

DEFINITIONS
Physical

phenomenon

Any

natural occurrence involving the interaction of matter and energy

ELEMENTS
Substances

that cannot be split into simpler substances by chemical means.

approx.109 identified, 92 occur naturally and 17 synthesized. Living organisms contain only about 20.

ELEMENTS
Elements

are denoted by one or two letters derived from their English or Latin names

carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca) and oxygen (O).

Four

elements (C, H, O, N) make up over 90 percent of our bodys weight.

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ELEMENTS IMPORTANT TO LIFE

Element C H O N Ca Na & K Cl P Importance Organic molecules (Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids) Organic molecules, Electron transfer Organic molecules, Cellular respiration Proteins, Nucleic acids, Chlorophyll Bones, teeth, Conduction of nerve impulses, Muscle contraction, Blood clotting Cations (positive ion) in interstitial fluid, Nerve functions Anion (negative ion) in interstitial fluid Nucleic acids, ATP, Phospholipids (cell membranes)

ATOMS

The smallest part of an element that can take part in a chemical change (atomos indivisible).
Atoms consist largely of empty space. Nucleus the centre of an atom, very small volume

Virtually

all of the weight of an atom is compacted in the centre (occupying a space equivalent to a marble in a football field)

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STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

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ATOMS - NUCLEUS
Nucleus

comprised of positively charged protons and neutral neutrons

Nucleus therefore positively charged. Protons and neutrons have equal mass - about 1 atomic mass unit (or 1.6 x 10-24) grams.

Mass number/atomic mass = Total mass of atom = # protons + # neutrons.

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ATOMS- NUCLEUS
Nucleus

orbited by electrons of negligible mass. Electrons negatively charged Electrons about 1/1,800 the mass of a proton The smallest atom, an atom of hydrogen, consists of one proton and one electron.
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ATOMS
Held

together as a unit by the electrical attraction exerted between the oppositely charged protons and electrons.
charge of the atom is neutral since number of protons equals the number of electrons
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Overall

ATOMS
All

consist of the same three types of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons). are therefore distinguished by the atomic number.
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They

ATOMS
The

atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

For example, carbons atomic number is 6 therefore, all carbon atoms have 6 protons, and conversely, all atoms with 6 protons are carbon.

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ATOMS- ISOTOPES

Isotopes Atoms which have the same number of protons (atomic number) but different number of neutrons (therefore different atomic mass).
In

nature, a sample of an element will contain a mixture of various isotopes.

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ATOMS- ISOTOPES
Example

Hydrogen has three isotopes with 0, 1 or 2 neutrons. Hydrogen therefore exists in three different forms

Hydrogen: Proton = 1; Neutron = 0; Electrons =1 Deuterium: Proton = 1; Neutron = 2; Electrons =1 Tritium: Proton = 1; Neutron = 3; Electrons =1
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ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen
Atomic # 1 Mass # 1

Deuterium
Atomic # 1 Mass # 2

Tritium
Atomic # 1 Mass # 3

Symbol:

Symbol:

Symbol:
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ATOMS- ELECTRONS

Electrons Arranged in shells/ orbitals around the nucleus. Each shell can hold a specific amount of electrons.
1st shell can hold 2 electrons, 2nd shell 8

When

one shell is filled, additional electrons go into the next shell farther away from the nucleus. 20

ATOMS- ELECTRONS
Example

Chlorines 17 electrons are held 2 in 1st shell, 8 in the next shell and 7 in the last. Chlorines electron configuration may be written (1s22s82p7).

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ELECTRONS

Nitrogens

seven electrons are accommodated 2 in 1st shell, 5 in the next shell N= 7 (2:5)
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ATOMS- ELECTRONS
Elements

with their outermost shell full of electrons are

usually unreactive e.g., helium, neon. called the noble gases because they seldom form compounds with other atoms.

All

other elements have a tendency to want to obtain a full shell through reaction with other elements. 23

MAIN ELEMENTS IN LIVING MATTER

Atomic #
C H O N P S 6 1 8 7 15 16

Electron Shells
1s2 2s2 2p2 1s1 1s2 2s2 2p4 1s2 2s2 2p3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Valency
4 1 2 3 or 5 3 or 5 2 or 6 or 4

Mass #
12 1 16 14 31 32

Valency= # of H atoms that the element can combine with

Atomic #=# of protons (+ charge) =# of electrons (- charge)
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MOLECULES + COMPOUNDS
The

atoms of most elements can interact with similar or other atoms to form larger, more complex structures called molecules. Eg. H2

molecule containing two or more types of elements chemically combined is called a compound e.g.,
water (hydrogen & oxygen); glucose (carbon, hydrogen & oxygen); sodium chloride (sodium & chlorine)

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COMPOUNDS
Different

atoms are combined in specific proportions, with a specific bond. Eg.,

All samples of pure H2O contain, by mass, H:O in the ratio1:8 When H reacts with O to produce water, relative amounts of H and O that combine are always the same. If 1.0g of H reacts, 8.0g of O is always used.
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BONDS
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BONDS

Atoms in compounds are held together by bonds

The

main types of chemical bonds are

but

ionic (transfer of electrons) and covalent (sharing of electrons) there are other types

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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS)
Some

atoms are so electron attracting (electronegative) that they can capture electrons from the outer shell of other atoms Electrons end up being transferred from one atom to another. E.g. Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Atoms of sodium are being bonded to chlorine

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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER
OF ELECTRONS)

Number and arrangement of electrons:

Na = 11 (2: 8: 1); Cl = 17 ( 2: 8: 7) Chlorine will capture the one electron in the outer shell of sodium. Cl now has 17 protons and 18 electrons (a net negative charge). Cl- anion Na is left with 11 protons and 10 electrons (a net positive charge). Na+ cation
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IONIC BONDS
(TRANSFER
OF ELECTRONS)

Oppositely

charged ions attract one another, forming a linkage called the ionic bond. Electrically charged particles are called ions.

Positive ions = cations; negative ions = anions.

Ionic

bonds usually form between charged groups that are of large, complex biological molecules e.g., proteins.
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COVALENT BONDS
(SHARING ELECTRONS)

Electrons

in this type of bond are shared between atoms, so that each has a stable complete outer energy shell. number of bonds that are formed depend on the number of electrons needed to fill the outer shell.
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The

COVALENT BONDS
(SHARING ELECTRONS)

Eg.,

hydrogen molecule (H2) consists of two atoms of hydrogen. Hydrogen has a single electron in its outer shell and so can combine with another hydrogen atom.

This is a single covalent bond.

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COVALENT BONDS

Hydrogen Molecule

Chlorine Molecule

Oxygen molecule (double covalent bond)

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COVALENT BONDS
Double

(e.g, O2) and triple covalent bonds (e.g., N3) also occur.
Different atoms can be covalently bonded to each other. Eg. methane has H bonded with C.

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POLAR BONDS
Formed

during the sharing of electrons between two atoms of different electronegativity e.g., water (H2O). Waters single O atom attracts electrons much more than its two H atoms.
The

electrons associate more with O which becomes slightly negative as a result; H atoms become slightly positive.
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POLAR BONDS
Molecules

with unequal charge distribution are said to be polar (unequal sharing of electrons). molecules possess distinct positive and negative regions, or poles, and attract each other leading to the formation of the bond

Polar

Eg. hydrogen bond

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HYDROGEN BONDS
Hydrogen

bonding occurs when an atom of hydrogen is attracted by rather strong forces to two atoms instead of only one, so that it may be considered to be acting as a bond between them

Eg.

Partially positively charged hydrogen atom lies between partially negatively charged oxygen or nitrogen atoms
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POLAR BONDS (HYDROGEN BOND)

Red ball = hydrogen White ball = oxygen

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COMPOUNDS MIXTURES DISPERSION SYSTEMS SOLUTIONS SUSPENSION COLLOIDS EMULSION

MIXTURES
Mixtures

differ from molecules and compounds in that they may be of variable composition.
A solution

of sodium chloride (NaCl, table salt) in water is a mixture of two substances. There can be any amount of water and any amount of sodium chloride.
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MIXTURES
Separation

of mixtures can be accomplished by some physical process (as opposed to a chemical reaction).
Eg. Sodium chloride in water If left to evaporate, water will leave the salt behind.

Most

materials found in nature are not pure but are mixtures. 42

DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS

Solutions Common in nature Extremely important in both life & industrial processes. Vary in concentration Body fluids (eg. blood and urine) of all life forms are solutions; the concentrations of the solutes give valuable clues on the state of health.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS True solutions consist of a solvent and one or more solutes Proportions of solute and solvent vary from one solution to another (whereas pure substance has fixed composition). The solvent is the medium in which the solutes are dissolved.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS

The fundamental units of solutes are usually molecules or ions.

Molecules 2 or more atoms held

chemically combined in a definite arrangement. Eg. O2

Ions - atoms, groups of atoms that would normally be neutral but now have become charged by the gain or loss of an electron.
Negative ions (anions) have more electrons in its shells than protons in its nucleus. Eg. O2 Positive ions (cations) have less electrons in its shells than protons in its nucleus. Eg. H+

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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS

Homogenous

mixture have the solute molecules relatively small in comparison to the solvent molecules. Solutions may involve many different forms of matter; a solid, liquid, or gas can act as either a solvent or solute. Most common kinds of solutions have liquids as the solvent.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SOLUTIONS

Eg.

of common solutions with non-liquid solvents:

Air is a solution of gases (with variable composition). Dental fillings are liquid in solid; solutions of liquid mercury dissolved in metals. Alloys are solid solutions of solid metals dissolved in one another.

The

solutes in solutions are relatively small in comparison to the solvent molecules.

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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- SUSPENSIONS

Suspension
A

heterogeneous mixture in which the large solute-like particles immediately settle out after mixing with a solvent like phase.
example, sand is stirred into water. The solute does not dissolve.
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For

DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS

Colloids, colloidal suspensions, or colloidal dispersions

Intermediate kind of a mixture (between homogenous, solution and totally heterogeneous, suspension) in which the solute like particles, or dispersed phase, are suspended in the solvent-like phase or dispersing medium.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS

The

particles of the dispersed solute are large in comparison to the solvent but small enough to remain suspended and settling is negligible.

Solute neither dissolves nor sediments

Solute

particles large enough to make the mixture appear cloudy (or opaque) because light is scattered as it passes through the colloid. Suspension therefore heterogenous.
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS If left for a long time, flocculation occurs, that is, the particles come together then settle out.
Colloid

Classification

hydrophilic (water loving) or hydrophobic (water hating) based on the surface characteristics of the dispersed particles.

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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS

Hydrophilic Colloids
Proteins

eg. haemoglobin form hydrophilic sols when they are suspended in saline aqueous body fluids eg. blood plasma. proteins fold and twist in an aqueous solvent so that polar groups are exposed to the fluid, while non-polar groups are encased.

These

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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS

Hydrophilic Colloids Gels are special types of sols (solid in liquid colloid) in which the solid solutes join together in a semi-rigid network structure that encloses the solvent.
Protoplasm

in human cells are examples of gels. The solute are mainly proteins and carbohydrates and the solvent aqueous)
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DISPERSION SYSTEMS- COLLOIDS

Hydrophobic Colloids
Hydrophobic

solutes cannot exist in polar solvents without the presence of emulsifying agents. Emulsifiers coat the solute to prevent their coagulation into a separate phase. In milk, the fat is emulsified by casein. In mayonnaise, the vegetable oil is emulsified by egg yolk.

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EMULSIONS
Two

liquids are immiscible and there do not dissolve in each other. Liquid in liquid colloid e.g., oil and water.

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COLLOIDS

Adsorption The adhesion of the molecules of liquids, gases, and dissolved substances to the surfaces of solids

(as opposed to absorption, in which the molecules actually enter the absorbing medium).

Colloidal

particles suspended in a solution may adsorb much of the solvent.

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ADSORPTION
Charcoal,

for example, is used in industry to remove colors from solutions, since they adsorb many coloring materials and carry these with them when separated from the solution.

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