RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TERMINOLOGY

1. What is research?
It is a systematic (i.e. consistent) enquiry (i.e. search) for truth.

2. What is Truth?
Truth is considered to be the highest reality, and to have the basic meaning and value of existence

Terminology Continued

2. What is Knowledge? Knowledge? It is defined as a justified, true belief.

(NB: This is still being debated by philosophers in epistemology = theory of knowledge) knowledge)
 How

is truth related to knowledge? knowledge?

 Only true things can be known. So, false

ideas cannot be called knowledge.

Knowledge is justified, true belief (see figure) justified,

Terminology Continued

Question: Question Can total truth be achieved? Answer is NO

 We only know partial truth (Not full

truth) at any one time.  That is why we always search for more truth.

Terminology Continued

Question: Why is it not possible to achieve total total truth?

This is because of the different points

of view. Different points of view are explained by Perspective Philosophy.

Terminology Continued
 The different points of view are caused

by:
i. Previous Personal experience (i.e. a persons

background). i.e.

A constraint of physical relativity

ii. Humans see things or situations in human

view, not in the view of things, or systems they study. i.e.

A constraint of biological relativity

Terminology Continued
iii.

Level of technological advancement

 Available technology determines

how much you can measure. i.e. Constraint of Cultural Relativity

Terminology Continued

How to come closer to total truth:

Make multiple (i.e. more than one) observations ii. Use more than one method of investigation (Triangulation of Methods) iii. Listen positively to criticism
i.

3. Characteristics of Research:
i.

It answers a particular question or questions or hypothesis: It seeks to add new knowledge ii. It is focused : Has objectives, purpose. iii. It has research strategy: Design, plan iv. It uses selected methods: Verified methods, organized way to collect data

It has organized data analysis and interpretation, conclusions and recommendations vii. It is reported in an orderly manner i.e. Research report has a basic standard format.
vi.

Terminology Continued

4. What is Hypothesis
 It is a specific statement of prediction of

an outcome about a phenomenon.  A tentative explanation that has not yet been thoroughly tested, but considers fully what is already known in literature.  It must be verified by experiment or consistent observation. (e.g. in Deductive research)

Terminology Continued

4.1 Deductive Research:

Tests hypothesis in order to confirm, modify or rejects established theories NB:Not all studies require an hypothesis


4.2 Inductive research:

It generate hypothesis by making obervations to a NEW phenomenon.  Hypothesis is then thouroughly tested  Hypothesis turns into theory if it is generally accepted as valid explanation of phenomenon. NB: Research now tends to combine the two.


5. What is Theory? Theory?

A theory is a logical explanation for a

large number of facts and observations about a phenomenon.
It is an explanation that is generally accepted as being accurate about an observation after many experiments/ observations

5.1. Characteristics of a theory

i. ii.

iii. iv.

It is internally consistent (i.e. not contradictory) Firmly grounded in and based upon evidence (i.e. as long as there is no other evidence to refute it) Tested against a wide range of phenomena Shown to be effective in problem-solving

Examples of theories 1. John Listers theory of anti-sepsis antiin surgery



He postulated that sepsis might be caused by a 'pollen-like dust.

2. Nursing theories are based on 4 concepts:  The person ( patient): The most important  The environment  Health  Nursing (goals, roles, functions)

6. What is a Model?
This is a representation of the interaction

among and between the concepts to show patterns. It can be diagramatic. diagramatic. E.g. Health belief Model:
Health-seeking behaviour is influenced by a persons perception of a threat posed by a health problem and the value associated with actions

Health belief Model

2. BioPsychoSocial Model of Health and Illness

(http://cnx.org/content/m13589/latest/)

Terminology Continued

7. What is a theory of Empiricism? It states that Knowledge comes from experience and evidence especially sensory perception (e.g. seeing, etc.) and not only from reasoning, reasoning intuition (i.e. instinct), or revelation. revelation


NB: Science is considered to be methodologically empirical in nature

Terminology Continued

8.What 8.What is Operational Research? Research?

It a research done to find solutions to improve the performance of a system. e.g. Research on  HIV or malaria vaccine  why patients wait longer than expected at the health clinic.

Terminology Continued

9. Basic research:


It is a systematic study done to improve knowledge or understanding of the basic (i.e. fundamental) aspects of a phenomenon and of observable facts without immediate application of the outcome. Example:  Discovery of DNA in 1953 much later led to cancer treatment  Nuclear Magnetic Resonance much later led to discovery of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Terminology Continued

10. Quantitative research It involves taking measurements and using statistical tests to explain what is observed 11. Qualitative research Involves complete description of a situation

Terminology Continued

12. Epidemiological research

 It is research on the distribution and

determinants of disease and different health related conditions and events in specific populations to obtain information to be used in the control of health problems.  It also includes studies on efficacy of treatment and preventive measures

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
TYPE OF STUDY ALTERNATIVE NAME UNIT OF STUDY 1. OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES 1.1Descriptive studies i. Case Report i. Individuals ii. Case Series ii. Individuals iii. Community iii. Individuals Health Status reports 1.2 Analytical Studies (Exploratory studies) i. Ecological Studies i. Correlational studies i.Populations ii. Cross-sectional ii. Prevalence studies ii. Individuals studies iii. Case-control iii. Case-reference iii. Individuals studies studies iv. Cohort studies iv. Follow-up studies iv. Individuals

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
TYPE OF STUDY ALTERNATIVE NAME UNIT OF STUDY

2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES Randomized clinical i. Clinical trial trial i. Patients

ii. Field Trials iii. Community Trials

ii. Community ii. Healthy people Intervention studies iii. Healthy people

STEPS FOR DOING RESEARCH

Three main steps for doing research: i. Writing a Research Proposal ii. Collection and analysis of data iii. Writing Research Reports (i.e. communicating the results)

Research Proposal It is a Plan or guide for doing research. Uses: i. To seek approval for the research ii. To solicit for research funds. iii. To serve as a guide during the research process
NB: KHI has an approved format.

Research Report It is the presentation of the research results for dissemination purposes. Types of Research reports i. Progress reports, ii. Final report, iii. Dissertations/Thesis iv. publications (scientific papers),

Similarities and Differences between Research Proposal and Written Research Report
How do the tenses differ? What about presentation of results,

budget, discussion, conclusions and recommendations? What about Workplan, budget, CV?

Research Proposal and Written Research Report

FEATURE RESEARCH PROPOSAL REASEARCH REPORT (E.g. DISSERTATION) Same

form of Research Problem) (ii) SUMMARY (Written LAST)

A. (i) TITLE (Short Same

y Format is similar y Format is similar y Tenses and some y Tenses and some sections may sections may differ differ y 150-200 words y 150-200 words

FEATURE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

REASEARCH REPORT (E.g. DISSERTATION) Same

B. 1.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Definitions of key terms pertinent to the study. Background for the study (i.e. Motivation) Research Problem Statement Same

2.

Same

Same

3.

Same

Same

B. 4.

6.

7.

REASEARCH REPORT (E.g. DISSERTATION) CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION (continued) Objectives (Main Same Same Objective and Specific Objectives) Research Same Same questions/ Hypothesis Significance (i.e. Same Same Rationale) of the study Subdivisions of Same Same the Study

FEATURE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

FEATURE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

D. 1. 2.

CHAPTER 2: Same LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Study Area Study Design Same, in future tense

REASEARCH REPORT (E.g. DISSERTATION) Same

Same, in past tense

3.

Study population

D. 4. 5. 6. 7.

REASEARCH REPORT (E.g. DISSERTATION) CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY (Continued) Study sample Data collection Data analysis Problems and Limitations of the study Ethical Considerations

FEATURE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Same, in future tense

Same, in past tense

8.

FEATURE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

CHAPTER 4:

REASEARCH REPORT (E.g. DISSERTATION) PRESENTATION RESULTS AND OF RESULTS DISCUSSION In future tense. Dummy tables (i.e. Tables without data) Absent In past tense. Tables contain data.

F.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDA TIONS

Present

FEATURE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

9.

G 1. 2. 3. 4.

6.

References (In text and Reference list) OTHERS Work Plan Gantt Chart Budget and its justification Profile of the Applicant (i.e. Curriculum Vitae) and the Institution Appendices

Same

REASEARCH REPORT (E.g. DISSERTATION) Same

Present Present Present Present

Absent Absent Absent Absent

Present

Present

STEPS FOR DOING RESEARCH

Identification of the Research

Problem (i.e. Main Research Question): Steps?

BY REVIEW OF LITERATURE, etc.
Feasibility of the Research Problem

What factors determine feasibility of your research problem?

Literature review process

 Definition

________________________________  What is the importance of literature review? ________________________________

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

 What does the background to the study

contain?
 What does PROBLEM STATEMENT

CONTAIN?

Objectives


Main Objectives __________________________  Specific objectives ___________________________



Characteristics of objectives ____________________________