Chapter 2 Electrical Engineering Materials EET3066

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Metal interconnects are used in microelectronics to wire the devices within the chip, the intergraded circuit. Multilevel interconnects are used for implementing the necessary interconnections.

|SOURCE: Dr. Don Scansen, Semiconductor Insights, Kanata, Ontario, Canada

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an applied electric field. Electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in the xdirection.(Ex is the electric field.)

Fig 2.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Definition of Drift Velocity

1 v dx ! [v x1  v x 2  vx 3   v xN ] N
vdx = drift velocity in x direction, N = number of conduction electrons, vxi = x direction velocity of ith electron

Current Density and Drift Velocity Jx (t) = envdx(t)

Jx = current density in the x direction, e = electronic charge, n = electron concentration, vdx = drift velocity

Ex

(x
Vibrating Cu+ ions

V (b)

(a)

(a) A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal (with a mean speed u) being frequently and randomly scattered by by thermal vibrations of the atoms. In the absence of an applied field there is no net drift in any direction. (b) In the presence of an applied field, Ex, there is a net drift along the x-direction. This net drift along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of the electron. After many scattering events the electron has been displaced by a net distance, (x, from its initial position toward the positive terminal Fig 2.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Velocity gained along x vx1-ux1 Last collision

Present time

Electron 1

time

vx2-ux2

t1

Free time

Electron 2

t2 vx3-ux3

time

Electron 3

t3

time

Velocity gained in the x-direction at time t from the electric field (Ex) for three electrons. There will be N electrons to consider in the metal.
Fig 2.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Definition of Drift Mobility vdx = QdEx

vdx = drift velocity, Qd = drift mobility, Ex = applied field

Drift Mobility and Mean Free Time

eX Qd ! me
Qd = drift mobility, e = electronic charge, X = mean scattering time (mean time between collisions) = relaxation time, me = mass of an electron in free space.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Unipolar Conductivity e nX W ! enQd ! me

W = conductivity, e = electronic charge, n = number of electrons per unit volume, Qd = drift velocity, X = mean scattering (collision) time = relaxation time, me = mass of an electron in free space.
2

Drift Velocity
(x ! vdx (t
(x = net displacement parallel to the field, (t = time interval, vdx = drift velocity
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electric field

E
s1 uy1 Start 0 Collision t1 ux1 3 1 Collision t2 t3 2 4 x Finish p

s = (x Distance drifted in total time ( t

The motion of a single electron in the presence of an electric field E. During a time interval ti, the electron traverses a distance si along x. After p collisions, it has drifted a distance s = (x.

Fig 2.4
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

S = T a2

= Nu

Electron

Scattering of an electron from the thermal vibrations of the atoms. The electron travels a mean distance N u X between collisions. Since the = scattering cross sectional area is S, in the volume SN there must be at least one scatterer, Ns(SuX) = 1.
Fig 2.5
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Mean Free Time Between Collisions

1 X! SuNs
X = mean free time, u = mean speed of the electron, Ns = concentration of scatterers, S = cross-sectional area of the scatterer

Resistivity Due to Thermal Vibrations of the Crystal VT = AT

VT = resistivity of the metal, A = temperature independent constant, T = temperature
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Strained region by impurity exerts a scattering force F = - d(PE) /dx

XI

X8

Two different types of scattering processes involving scattering from impurities alone and thermal vibrations alone.
Fig 2.6
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Matthiessens Rule V = VT + VI
V = effective resistivity, VT = resistivity due to scattering by thermal vibrations only, VI = resistivity due to scattering of electrons from impurities only.

V = VT + VR
V = overall resistivity, VT = resistivity due to scattering from thermal vibrations, VR = residual resistivity
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Definition of Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity

1 HV Eo ! V o HT T !To
Eo = TCR (temperature coefficient of resistivity), HV = change in the resistivity, Vo = resistivity at reference temperature To , HT = small increase in temperature, To = reference temperature

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

V!VS[1 + Eo(TTo)]
V = resistivity, Vo = resistivity at reference temperature, E0 = TCR (temperature coefficient of resistivity), T = new temperature, T0 = reference temperature
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

2000 1000
Iron Monel-400 Tungsten Inconel-825 NiCr Heating Wire

Resistivity (n m)

VwT

100 Platinum
Nickel Copper Silver

Tin

10 100

1000

10000

Temperature (K)

The resistivity of various metals as a function of temperature above 0 C. Tin melts at 505 K whereas nickel and iron go through a magnetic to non-magnetic (Curie) transformations at about 627 K and 1043 K respectively. The theoretical behavior (V ~ T) is shown for reference. [Data selectively extracted from various sources including sections in Metals Handbook, 10th Edition, Volumes 2 and 3 (ASM, Metals Park, Ohio, 1991)]
Fig 2.7
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

100
VwT

10

Resistivity(n m)

V (n; m)

0.1 0.01
VwT
5

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1

V ! VR V w T5 VwT

0.001 0.0001

0.5 V = VR 0 0 20 40 10 100

60
T (K)

80 100 10000

0.00001

1000

Temperature(K)

The resistivity of copper from lowest to highest temperatures (near melting temperature, 1358 K) on a log-log plot. Above about 100 K, V w T, whereas at low temperatures, V w T 5 and at the lowest temperatures V approaches the residual resistivity VR . The inset shows the V vs. T behavior below 100 K on a linear plot ( VR is too small on this scale).
Fig 2.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

60

Cu-3.32%Ni

Resistivity (n; m)

Cu-2.16%Ni 40
VCW VI VT

Cu-1.12%Ni (Deformed) Cu-1.12%Ni 100%Cu (Deformed) 100%Cu (Annealed)

20

0 0 100 200 300

Temperature (K)

Typical temperature dependence of the resistivity of annealed and cold worked (deformed) copper containing various amount of Ni in atomic percentage (data adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Pkysik, 5, 219 (1932)).
Fig 2.9
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

40 W

0.333 A

120 V

Power radiated from a light bulb is approximately equal to the electrical power dissipated in the filament.

Fig 2.10
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

1500
Temperature (C)

1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 LIQUID PHASE

L+

S IDU QU LI US L ID SO

SOLID SOLUTION

20

100% Cu

40 60 at.% Ni

80

100 100% Ni

(a)
600
Resistivity (n; m)

500 400 300 200 100

Cu-Ni Alloys

0 20 100% Cu

40 60 at.% Ni

80

100 100% Ni

(b)

(a) Phase diagram of the Cu-Ni alloy system. Above the liquidus line only the liquid phase exists. In the L + S region, the liquid (L) and solid (S) phases coexist whereas below the solidus line, only the solid phase (a solid solution) exists. (b) The resistivity of the Cu-Ni alloy as a function of Ni content (at.%) at room temperature. [Data extracted from Metals Handbook-10th Edition, Vols 2 and 3, ASM, Metals Park, Ohio, 1991 and Constitution of Binary Alloys, M. Hansen and K. Anderko, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958] Fig 2.11
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Nordheims Rule for Solid Solutions

VI = CX(1 X)
VI = resisitivity due to scattering of electrons from impurities C = Nordheim coefficient X = atomic fraction of solute atoms in a solid solution

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

160 140
Resistivity (n; m)

Quenched

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Composition (at.% Au) Cu3Au CuAu Annealed

Electrical resistivity vs. composition at room temperature in Cu-Au alloys. The quenched sample (dashed curve) is obtained by quenching the liquid and has the Cu and Au atoms randomly mixed. The resistivity obeys the Nordheim rule. On the other hand, when the quenched sample is annealed or the liquid slowly cooled (solid curve), certain compositions (Cu3Au and CuAu) result in an ordered crystalline structure in which Cu and Au atoms are positioned in an ordered fashion in the crystal and the scattering effect is reduced.
Fig 2.12
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Combined Matthiessen and Nordheim Rules

V = Vmatrix + CX(1 X)

V = resistivity of the alloy (solid solution) Vmatrix = resistivity of the matrix due to scattering from thermal vibrations and other defects C = Nordheim coefficient X = atomic fraction of solute atoms in a solid solution

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

L A Jx

Jy

Continuous phase Dispersed phase y A x L Jx

E F

(a)

(b)

(c)

The effective resistivity of a material having a layered structure. (a) Along a direction perpendicular to the layers. (b) Along a direction parallel to the plane of the layers. (c) Material with a dispersed phase in a continuous matrix.

Fig 2.13
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Effective Resistance of Mixtures

LE VE LF V F Reff !  A A
Reff = effective resistance LE = total length (thickness) of the E-phase layers VE= resistivity of the E-phase layers A = cross-sectional area LF = total length (thickness) of the F-phase layers VF = resistivity of the F-phase layers

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Resistivity-Mixture Rule Veff = GEVEGFVF

Veff = effective resistivity of mixture, GE= volume fraction of the Ephase, VE = resistivity of the E-phase, GF= volume fraction of the Fphase, VF= resistivity of the F-phase

Conductivity-Mixture Rule Weff = GEWEGFWF

Weff = effective conductivity of mixture, GE= volume fraction of the E-phase, WE = conductivity of the E-phase, GF= volume fraction of the F-phase, WF= conductivity of the F-phase
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Mixture Rule (Vd > 10Vc )

Veff 1 (1  Gd ) 2 ! Vc (1 G d )

Veff = effective resistivity, Vc = resistivity of continuous phase, Gd = volume fraction of dispersed phase, Vd = resistivity of dispersed phase

Mixture Rule (Vd < 0.1Vc )

Veff

(1  Gd ) ! Vc (1  2Gd )

Veff = effective resistivity, Vc = resistivity of the continuous phase, Gd = volume fraction of the dispersed phase, Vd = resistivity of the dispersed phase
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

L A
E

(a)
F E F

A/N

(b)

L
(a) A two phase solid. (b) A thin fiber cut out from the solid.

Fig 2.14
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Temperature

TA TE E T1
E+L

(a) Liquid, L

TB
F +L F

Two phase region EF

One phase region: F only

100%A

X1

X (% B)

X2 100%B

(b)

Resistivity

Mixture Rule Nordheim's Rule

VA VB

0 X1

Composition X (% B)

X2 100%B

(a) The phase diagram for a binary, eutectic forming alloy. (b) The resistivity vs composition for the binary alloy.
Fig 2.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Jy = 0 Bz VH

V
Jx

y z x

+
vdx

eEH

+
Ex

Jx

EH

evdxBz

A
Bz V

+
Illustration of the Hall effect. The z-direction is out from the plane of paper. The externally applied magnetic field is along the z-direction.
Fig 2.16
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

q = +e v v B

q = -e

B F = qvvB

F = qvvB

(a)

(b)

A moving charge experiences a Lorentz force in a magnetic field. (a) A positive charge moving in the x direction experiences a force downwards. (b) A negative charge moving in the -x direction also experiences a force downwards.
Fig 2.17
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Lorentz Force F = qv v B
F = force, q = charge, v = velocity of charged particle, B = magnetic field

Definition of Hall Coefficient

RH ! Ey J x Bz

RH = Hall coefficient, Ey = electric field in the y-direction, Jx = current density in the x-direction, Bz = magnetic field in the zdirection
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

IL

Wattmeter

IL

Load Source
VL RL

VL IL C Bz w R VL Ix = VL/R C V VH IL

Wattmeter based on the Hall effect. Load voltage and load current have L as subscript. C denotes the current coils. for setting up a magnetic field through the Hall effect sample (semiconductor)
Fig 2.18
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

HOT HEAT

COLD

Electron Gas

Vibrating Cu+ ions

Thermal conduction in a metal involves transferring energy from the hot region to the cold region by conduction electrons. More energetic electrons (shown with longer velocity vectors) from the hotter regions arrive at cooler regions and collide there with lattice vibrations and transfer their energy. Lengths of arrowed lines on atoms represent the magnitudes of atomic vibrations. Fig 2.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

HOT

HT

COLD dQ dt

HEAT

Hx

Heat flow in a metal rod heated at one end. Consider the rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, across a thin section H x of the rod. The rate of heat flow is proportional to the temperature gradient H T/H x and the cross sectional area A.

Fig 2.20
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fouriers Law of Thermal Conduction

dQ HT Q d ! !  OA dt Hx
Qd = rate of heat flow, Q = heat, t = time, O = thermal conductivity, A = area through which heat flows, dT/dx = temperature gradient

Ohms Law of Electrical Conduction

HV I !  AW Hx
I = electric current, A = cross-sectional area, W = electrical conductivity, dV/dx = potential gradient (represents an electric field), HV = change in voltage across Hx, Hx = thickness of a thin layer at x
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

450

Thermal conductivity, O (W K-1 m-1)

400

Ag Ag-3Cu Ag-20Cu Cu

300

O =TC WFL W
Al W Be Mg Mo Brass (Cu-30Zn)

Au

200

100

Ni Bronze (95Cu-5Sn) Steel (1080) Pd-40Ag Hg

10 20 30 40 50 60 Electrical conductivity, W 106 ;-1 m-1

70

Thermal conductivity, O vs. electrical conductivity W for various metals (elements and alloys) at 20 C. The solid line represents the WFL law with CWFL } 2.44v108 W ; K-2.
Fig 2.21
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz Law

O 8 2 ! CWFL ! 2.45v10 W ; K WT
O = thermal conductivity W = electrical conductivity T = temperature in Kelvins CWFL = Lorenz number

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

50000
Thermal conductivity, O (W K-1 m-1)

10000

Copper

1000

Aluminum

100

Brass (70Cu-30Zn) Al-14%Mg

10 1 10 100 Temperature (K) 1000

Thermal conductivity vs. temperature for two pure metals (Cu and Al) and two alloys (brass and Al-14%Mg). Data extracted from Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Vol. 1: Thermal Conductivity, Metallic Elements and Alloys, Y.S. Touloukian et. al (Plenum, New York, 1970).
Fig 2.22
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Equilibrium Hot Energetic atomic vibrations

Conduction of heat in insulators involves the generation and propogation of atomic vibrations through the bonds that couple the atoms. (An intuitive figure.)

Cold

Fig 2.23
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fouriers Law
(T (T Qd AO ! ! L (L /OA)
Qd = rate of heat flow or the heat current, A = cross-sectional area, O = thermal conductivity (material-dependent constant), (T = temperature difference between ends of component, L = length of component

Ohms Law
(V (V I! ! R ( L / WA)
I = electric current, (V = voltage difference across the conductor, R = resistance, L = length, W = conductivity, A = cross-sectional area
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Definition of Thermal Resistance

(T Qd ! U
Qd = rate of heat flow, (T = temperature difference, U = thermal resistance

Thermal Resistance
L U! AO
U = thermal resistance, L = length, A = cross-sectional area, O = thermal conductivity
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(T

Qd (T/U =
Cold
(T

Hot

Qd
L

Qd
A

Qd
U

(a)

(b)

Conduction of heat through a component in (a) can be modeled as a thermal resistance U shown in (b) where Qd (T/U. =

Fig 2.24
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Insulators
Many ceramics

Semiconductors

Conductors
Superconductors

Alumina Diamond Inorganic Glasses Mica Polypropylene PVDF PET SiO2 Soda silica glass Borosilicate Amorphous As2Se3 Pure SnO2 Intrinsic Si Te Graphite NiCr Ag Degenerately Doped Si Alloys Metals

Intrinsic GaAs

10-18

10-15

10-12

10-9

10-6

10-3

100

103

106

109

1012

Conductivity ( m)-1

Range of conductivites exhibited by various materials

Fig 2.25
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

hole

e-

(a) Thermal vibrations of the atoms rupture a bond and release a free electron into the crystal. A hole is left in the broken bond which has an effective positive charge. (b) An electron in a neighbouring bond can jump and repair this bond and thereby create a hole in its original site; the hole has been displaced. (c) When a field is applied both holes and electrons contribute to electrical conduction.

Fig 2.26
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Conductivity of a Semiconductor W = enQe + epQh

W = conductivity, e = electronic charge, n = electron concentration, Qe = electron drift mobility, p = hole concentration, Qh = hole drift mobility

Drift Velocity and Net Force

Qe ve ! Fnet e
ve = drift velocity of the electrons, Qe = drift mobility of the electrons, e = electronic charge, Fnet = net force
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Jy = 0

Bz

y x z

+
vhx evhxBz V

eEy Jx

Ey

Ex

Jx

vex eEy evexBz

+ +
Fig 2.27

Hall effect for ambipolar conduction as in a semiconductor where there are both electrons and holes. The magnetic field Bz is out from the plane of the paper. Both electrons and holes are deflected toward the bottom surface of the conductor and consequently the Hall voltage depends on the relative mobilities and concentrations of electrons and holes.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Bz

Hall Effect for Ambipolar Conduction

pQ h 2  nQe 2 RH ! e( pQh  nQe )2
RH = Hall coefficient, p = concentration of the holes, Qh = hole drift mobility, n = concentration of the electrons, Qe = electron drift mobility, e = electronic charge

OR
p  nb RH ! e( p  nb)2
2

b = Qe,/Qh
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

E
Vacancy aids the diffusion of positive ion

E
O2Si4+

Na+

Anion vacancy acts as a donor

Interstitial cation diffuses

(a)

(b)

Possible contributions to the conductivity of ceramic and glass insulators (a) Possible mobile charges in a ceramic (b) A Na+ ion in the glass structure diffuses and therefore drifts in the direction of the field. (E is the electric field.)
Fig 2.28
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

General Conductivity

W ! 7qi ni Qi
W = conductivity qi = charge carried by the charge carrier species i (for electrons and holes qi = e) ni = concentration of the charge carrier Qi = drift mobility of the charge carrier of species i

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005) From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

1v10-1 1v10-3
Conductivity 1/( m)

24%Na2O-76%SiO2 As3.0Te3.0Si1.2Ge1.0 glass

Pyrex

1v10-5 1v10-7 1v10-9 1v10-11 1v10-13 1v10-15 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 103/T (1/K) 3.2 3.6 4 SiO2 PVC 12%Na2O-88%SiO2 PVAc

Conductivity vs reciprocal temperature for various low conductivity solids. (PVC = Polyvinyl chloride; PVAc = Polyvinyl acetate.) Data selectively combined from numerous sources.
Fig 2.29
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Temperature Dependence of Conductivity

 EW  W ! W o exp   kT 
W = conductivity WS!constant )W= activation energy for conductivity k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

B2

(a) Total current into paper is I

B2

B1

(b) Current in hollow outer cylinder is I/2

B1

B2

B1

(c) Current in inner cylinder is I/2

Illustration of the skin effect. A hypothetical cut produces a hollow outer cylinder and a solid inner cylinder. Cut is placed where it would give equal current in each section. The two sections are in parallel so that the currents in (b) and (c) sum to that in (a).
Fig 2.30
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

[L

R
H = Skin depth

2a

At high frequencies, the core region exhibits more inductive impedance than the surface region, and the current flows in the surface region of a conductor defined approximately by the skin depth, H.
Fig 2.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Skin Depth for Conduction

H! 1 1 [WQ 2

H = skin depth, [ = angular frequency of current, W = conductivity, Q = magnetic permeability of the medium HF Resistance per Unit Length Due to Skin Effect

V V rac ! } A 2TaH
rac = ac resistance , V = resistivity, A = cross-sectional area, a = radius, H = skin depth
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Grain1 Grain2

Grain Boundary (a)

(b)

(a ) Gra in bounda rie s ca use sca tte ring of the e le ctron a nd the re fore a dd to the re sistivity by Ma tthie sse n's rule . (b) For a ve ry gra iny solid, the e le ctron is sca tte re d from gra in bounda ry to gra in bounda ry a nd the me a n fre e pa th is a pproxima te ly e qua l to the me a n gra in dia me te r.
Fig 2.32
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Jx
D

Conduction in thin films may be controlled by scattering from the surfaces.

Fig 2.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

+y
Scattering 2

N D =
U

N D/cosU =

x
Scattering 1

+x
y

The mean free path of the electron depends on the angle U after scattering.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fig 2.34
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

35

300
(a)

(b)

30

As deposited Annealed at 100 C Annealed at 150 C

100
25 20
Vbulk = 16.7 n

50

15 0 0.05 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

10 1/d (1/nanometer)

10

100 50 Film thickness (nm)

500

(a) Vfilm of the Cu polycrystalline films vs. reciprocal mean grain size (diameter), 1/d. Film thickness D = 250 nm - 900 nm does not affect the resistivity. The straight line is Vfilm = 17.8 n m + (595 n m nm)(1/d), (b) Vfilm of the Cu thin polycrystalline films vs. film thickness D. In this case, annealing (heat treating) the films to reduce the polycrystallinity does not significantly affect the resistivity because Vfilm is controlled mainly by surface scattering.
|SOURCE: Data extracted from (a) S. Riedel et al, Microelec. Engin. 33, 165, 1997 and (b). W. Lim et al, Appl. Surf. Sci., 217, 95, 2003)

Fig 2.35
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

M7

M6
Low permittivity dielectric M3

M5 M4 M3 M2 M1

Cu interconnects
M2 M1

Silicon

Metal interconnects wiring devices on a silicon crystal. Three different metallization levels M1, M2, and M3 are used. The dielectric between the interconnects has been etched away to expose the interconnect structure.
|SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM

Cross section of a chip with 7 levels of metallization, M1 to M7. The image is obtained with a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
|SOURCE: Courtesy of Mark Bohr, Intel.

Fig 2.36
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Three levels of interconnects in a flash memory chip. Different levels are connected through vias.
|SOURCE: Courtesy of Dr. Don Scansen, Semiconductor Insights, Kanata, Ontario, Canada

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fig 2.37
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a)

(b)
Hillock Grain boundary Void

Void and failure

Hillock

Electron

Current Interconnect Grain boundary

Int
Cold

ce erfa
Hot

Cold

(c)
Hillocks

Current

(a) Electrons bombard the metal ions and force them to slowly migrate (b) Formation of voids and hillocks in a polycrystalline metal interconnect by the electromigration of metal ions along grain boundaries and interfaces. (c) Accelerated tests on 3 mm CVD (chemical vapor deposited) Cu line. T = 200 oC, J = 6 MA cm-2: void formation and fatal failure (break), and hillock formation.
|SOURCE: Courtesy of L. Arnaud et al, Microelectronics Reliability, 40, 86, 2000.
Fig 2.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Resistivity versus temperature for pure iron and 4% C steel.

Fig 2.39
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Hall effect in a rectangular material with length L, widthW, and thickness D. The voltmeter is across the width W.
Fig 2.40
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The strain gauge consists of a long, thin wire folded several times along its length to form a grid as shown and embedded in a self-adhesive tape. The ends of the wire are attached to terminals (solder pads) for external connections. The tape is stuck on the component for which the strain is to be measured.
Fig 2.41
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)