Chapter 1

Chemistry
is the study of matter and the

changes it undergoes.
Matter is anything that has mass and
occupies space.
Composition of Matter
Atoms and Molecules
Scientific Method
Structure Determines Properties
The properties of matter are determined by the
atoms and molecules that compose it.
1. composed of one carbon
atom and one oxygen atom
2. colorless, odorless gas
3. burns with a blue flame
4. binds to hemoglobin
carbon monoxide
1. composed of one carbon
atom and two oxygen atoms
2. colorless, odorless gas
3. incombustible
4. does not bind to hemoglobin
carbon dioxide
Atoms and Molecules
atoms
are submicroscopic particles
are the fundamental building blocks of all matter
molecules
two or more atoms attached together in a specific
geometric arrangement
attachments are called bonds
attachments come in different strengths
come in different shapes and patterns
Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand
the behavior of matter by studying the behavior of
atoms and molecules.
The Scientific Approach to
Knowledge
Philosophers try to understand the
universe by reasoning and thinking
about ideal behavior.
Scientists try to understand the
universe through empirical knowledge
gained through observation and
experiment.
Gathering Empirical Knowledge
Observation
Some observations are simple
descriptions about the characteristics or
behavior of nature qualitative.
The soda pop is a liquid with a brown color
and a sweet taste. Bubbles are seen floating
up through it.
Some observations compare a
characteristic to a standard numerical
scale quantitative.
A 240-mL serving of soda pop contains 27 g
of sugar.
6
From Observation to
Understanding
Hypothesis a tentative interpretation or
explanation for an observation
The sweet taste of soda pop is due to the
presence of sugar.
A good hypothesis is one that can be
tested to be proved wrong!
falsifiable
One test may invalidate your hypothesis.
7
Testing Ideas
Ideas in science are tested with
experiments.
An experiment is a set of procedures that
are designed to test whether an idea
about nature is valid.
The experiment generates observations
that will either validate or invalidate the
idea.
From Specific to General
Observations
A scientific law is a summary of
observations that combines all past
observations into one general statement.
Law of conservation of mass: In a chemical
reaction matter is neither created nor
destroyed.
Allows you to predict future observations
So you can test the law with experiments.
Unlike state laws, you cannot choose to violate
a scientific law!
From Specific to General
Understanding
A hypothesis is a potential explanation
for a single or small number of
observations.
A theory is a general explanation for the
manifestation and behavior of all nature.
models
pinnacle of scientific knowledge
validated or invalidated by experiment and
observation
Scientific Method
the careful noting
and recording of
natural phenomena
a procedure
designed to
test an idea
a tentative explanation of
a single or small number
of natural phenomena
a general explanation
of natural phenomena
a generally
observed natural
phenomenon
11
Relationships between Pieces of
the Scientific Method
12
Classification of Matter
States of Matter
Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical and Chemical Changes
We can classify matter based on whether
its solid, liquid, or gas.
14
Classifying Matter by
Physical State
Matter can be classified as solid, liquid, or gas
based on the characteristics it exhibits.
fixed = keeps shape when placed in a container
indefinite = takes the shape of the container
Solids
The particles in a solid are packed
close together and are fixed in
position.
though they may vibrate
The close packing of the particles
results in solids being
incompressible.
The inability of the particles to move
around results in solids retaining their
shape and volume when placed in a
new container, and prevents the solid
from flowing.
16
Crystalline Solids
Some solids have their
particles arranged in an
orderly geometric pattern
we call these crystalline
solids.
salt
diamonds
sugar
17
Amorphous Solids
Some solids have their
particles randomly distributed
without any long-range pattern
we call these amorphous
solids.
plastic
glass
charcoal
18
Liquids
The particles in a liquid are
closely packed, but they have
some ability to move around.
The close packing results in
liquids being incompressible.
The ability of the particles to
move allows liquids to take the
shape of their container and to
flow; however, they dont have
enough freedom to escape and
expand to fill the container.
19
Gases
In the gas state, the particles
have complete freedom
from each other.
The particles are constantly
flying around, bumping into
each other and the container.
In the gas state, there is a lot
of empty space between the
particles.
20
Gases
Because there is a lot of
empty space, the
particles can be
squeezed closer
together; therefore, gases
are compressible.
Because the particles are
not held in close contact
and are moving freely,
gases expand to fill and
take the shape of their
container, and will flow.
21
Classifying Matter by
Composition
Another way to classify matter is to
examine its composition.
composition includes:
types of particles
arrangement of the particles
attractions and attachments between the
particles
23
by Composition
Matter whose composition does not change from
one sample to another is called a pure
substance.
made of a single type of atom or molecule
Because the composition of a pure substance is
always the same, all samples have the same
characteristics.
Matter whose composition may vary from one
sample to another is called a mixture.
two or more types of atoms or molecules combined in
variable proportions
Because composition varies, different samples have
different characteristics.
by Composition
1) made of one type
of particle
2) All samples show
the same intensive
properties.
1) made of multiple
types of particles
2) Samples may
show different
intensive
properties.
Classification of Pure
Substances - Elements
Pure substances that cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances by
chemical reactions are called elements.
decomposed = broken down
basic building blocks of matter
composed of single type of atom
though those atoms may or may not be combined
into molecules
Classification of Pure
Substances Compounds
Substances that can be decomposed are
called compounds.
chemical combinations of elements
composed of molecules that contain two or
more different kinds of atoms
All molecules of a compound are identical, so
all samples of a compound behave the same
way.
Most natural pure substances are
compounds.
27
Classification of Pure Substances
1) made of one
type of atom
(some
elements
found as multi-
atom
molecules in
nature)
2) combine
together to
make
compounds
1) made of one
type of
molecule, or
array of ions
2) units contain
two or more
different kinds
of atoms
Classification of Mixtures
homogeneous = mixture that has uniform
composition throughout
Every piece of a sample has identical characteristics,
though another sample with the same components may
have different characteristics.
atoms or molecules mixed uniformly
heterogeneous = mixture that does not have
uniform composition throughout
contains regions within the sample with different
characteristics
atoms or molecules not mixed uniformly
29
Classification of Mixtures
1) made of
multiple
substances,
but appears
to be one
substance
2) All portions of
an individual
sample have
the same
composition
and
properties.
1) made of
multiple
substances,
whose
presence can
be seen
2) Portions of a
sample have
different
composition
and
properties.
Distillation:
Separates homogeneous
mixture on the basis of
differences in boiling point.
Separation of Mixtures
Filtration:
Separates solid
substances from
liquids and solutions.
Chromatography:
Separates substances on the basis of differences in
solubility in a solvent.
Changes in Matter
Changes that alter the state or
appearance of the matter without altering
the composition are called physical
changes.
Changes that alter the composition of the
matter are called chemical changes.
During the chemical change, the atoms that
are present rearrange into new molecules, but
all of the original atoms are still present.
33
Physical Changes in Matter
The boiling of
water is a
physical change.
The water
molecules are
separated from
each other, but
their structure
and composition
do not change.
34
Chemical Changes in Matter
The rusting of iron is
a chemical change.
The iron atoms in
the nail combine
with oxygen atoms
from O
2
in the air to
make a new
substance, rust, with
a different
composition.
35
Properties of Matter
Physical properties are the characteristics
of matter that can be changed without
changing its composition.
characteristics that are directly observable
Chemical properties are the
characteristics that determine how the
composition of matter changes as a result
of contact with other matter or the influence
of energy.
characteristics that describe the behavior of
matter
36
CO
2
(s)
CO
2
(g)
Dry Ice
Subliming of Dry Ice
Common Physical Changes
processes that
cause changes in
the matter that do
not change its
composition
state changes
boiling/condensing
melting/freezing
subliming
dissolving
Common Chemical Changes
processes that cause
changes in the matter
that change its
composition
rusting
processes that release
lots of energy
burning
C
3
H
8
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 3 CO
2
(g) + 4 H
2
O(l)
Chemical Reactions
In the course of a
chemical reaction,
the reacting
substances are
converted to new
substances.
Compounds
Compounds can be
broken down into more
elemental particles.
Matter:
Anything that has mass and takes up space.
Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
Each element is made of the same kind of atom.
A compound is made of two or more different kinds of
elements.
States of Matter
Classification of
Matter
Properties of Matter
Physical Properties: Can be observed without
changing a substance into another substance
(Boiling point, density, mass, volume, etc.).
Chemical Properties: Can only be observed
when a substance is changed into another
substance (Flammability, corrosiveness,
reactivity with acid, etc.).
Intensive Properties: Independent of the amount of
the substance that is present (Density, boiling point, color,
etc.)
Extensive Properties: Dependent upon the amount
of the substance present (Mass, volume, energy, etc.
Measurement
and Significant Figures
A measurement is the
determination of the
dimensions, capacity, quantity,
or extent of something (mass,
volume, length, time,
temperature, pressure, and
concentration).
What Is a Measurement?
quantitative
observation
comparison to an
agreed-upon standard
Every measurement
has a number and a
unit.
A Measurement
The unit tells you what standard you are
comparing your object to.
the number tells you
1. what multiple of the standard the object
measures
2. the uncertainty in the measurement
Scientific measurements are reported so
that every digit written is certain except the
last one, which is estimated.
46
An exact number is a number that has a value
with no uncertainty in it; that is, it is known
exactly. Exact numbers occur in definitions (for
example, there are exactly 12 objects in a dozen,
not 12.01 or 12.02); in counting (for example,
there can be 7 people in a room, but never 6.99
or 7.02); and in simple fractions (for example,
1/3, 3/5, and 5/9).
An inexact number is a number that has a value
with a degree of uncertainty in it. Inexact
numbers result anytime a measurement is made.
It is impossible to make an exact measurement
and that leads to error (uncertainty).
Precision refers to how close a series of
measurements on the same object are to each other.
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement (or the
average of multiple measurements) comes to a true or
accepted value.
Uncertainty in Measured Numbers
Uncertainty comes from limitations of the instruments
used for comparison, the experimental design, the
experimenter, and natures random behavior.
To understand how reliable a measurement is, we
need to understand the limitations of the
measurement.
Accuracy is an indication of how close a
measurement comes to the actual value of the
quantity.
Precision is an indication of how close repeated
measurements are to each other.
how reproducible a measurement is
Errors in measurement can be classified
as either random errors or systematic
errors.
Random errors are errors originating
from uncontrolled variables in an
experiment.
Systematic errors are errors originating
from controllable variables in an
experiment. They are constant errors
that occur again and again.
Precision
Imprecision in measurements is caused by
random errors.
errors that result from random fluctuations
no specific cause, therefore cannot be
corrected
We determine the precision of a set of
measurements by evaluating how far they
are from the actual value and each other.
Even though every measurement has
some random error, with enough
measurements these errors should
average out.
Accuracy
Inaccuracy in measurement is caused by
systematic errors.
errors caused by limitations in the instruments or
techniques or experimental design
can be reduced by using more accurate
instruments, or better technique or experimental
design
We determine the accuracy of a measurement
by evaluating how far it is from the actual value.
Systematic errors do not average out with
repeated measurements because they
consistently cause the measurement to be either
too high or too low.
Accuracy vs. Precision
suppose 3 students are asked to determine the
mass of an object whose known mass is 10.00 g
the results they report are as follows:
Looking at the graph of the results shows that Student A is
neither accurate nor precise, Student B is inaccurate, but is
precise, and Student C is both accurate and precise.
53
Determining the Accuracy and Precision of a Series
of Measurements
Two teams A and B of three students each count the
number of people entering the main gate of a football
stadium in the 5-minute period just prior to kickoff. Their
individual and team counts are
A: Miranda: 577 people B: Spencer: 577 people
Brinley: 579 people Taylor: 585 people
Breiana: 581 people Brand: 593 people
An electronic counter indicates that 581 people passed
through the gate in the designated time period.
(a) Which persons count is the most accurate?
(b) Which teams count is the most accurate?
(c) Which persons count is the most precise?
(d) Which teams count is the most precise?
(a) Breianas count is the most accurate because
his count is the same as the electronic count.
(b) The average count of 579 for team A is closer
to 581 than the average count of 585 for team B.
Thus, team A made the more accurate count.
(c) Because each person made only one count,
the term precision does not apply.
(d) Team As counts range from a high of 581 to
a low of 577, which gives a spread of 4. Team
Bs counts range from a high of 593 to a low of
577, which gives a spread of 16. The smaller
spread makes Team As counts more precise.
In reading a
measurement
scale, all digits
known for certain
are recorded plus
one estimated
digit. It is wrong to
record more than
one estimated
digit.
Estimating the Last Digit
For instruments marked with
a scale, you determine the
last digit by estimating
between the marks.
Mentally divide the gap
between marks into tenths,
then estimate which tenth
the indicator mark would be
pointing toward.
Recording Measurements to the Proper Number of Digits
Determine the numerical value of the volume to be recorded in
each of the following volume measurements.
(a) The volume of liquid is between 20 and
30 milliliters. Estimate the final digit (to the
closest milliliter) to be 8, giving a reading of
28 mL.
(b) The level of the liquid is between 28 and
29 mL. We estimate the level to be at 28.2
mL.
(c) The buret is calibrated in tenths of a
milliliter. We know for certain that the liquid
level is between 28.3 and 28.4 mL. Adding
one estimated digit (hundredths of a
milliliter) gives a reading of 28.31 mL.
Because measurements are never
exact, two types of information must
be considered whenever a numerical
value for a measurement is recorded:
(1) the magnitude of the
measurement and
(2) the uncertainty of the
measurement.
Number of significant figures = All
certain digits + One uncertain digit
RULE 1 The digits 1-9 inclusive always count as
sig. figs.
14.232 5 sig. figs.
3.11 3 sig. figs.
244.6 4 sig. figs.
RULE 2 Leading zeros are zeros that occur at
the start of a number, that is, zeros that precede
all nonzero digits. Such zeros do not count as
sig. figs. Their function is simply to indicate the
position of the decimal point.
0.00045 2 sig. figs.
0.0113 3 sig. figs.
0.000000072 2 sig. figs.
RULE 3 Confined zeros are zeros between
nonzero digits. Such zeros always count as
sig. figs.
2.075 4 sig. figs.
6007 4 sig. figs.
0.03007 4 sig. figs.
RULE 4 Trailing zeros are zeros at the end
of a number. They are significant if (a) there
is a decimal point present in the number or
(b) they carry overbars. Otherwise trailing
zeros are not significant.
The following numbers, all containing
decimal points, illustrate condition (a)
of rule 4.
62.00 4 sig. figs.
24.70 4 sig. figs.
0.02000 4 sig. figs.
4300.00 6 sig. figs.
By condition (b), trailing zeros in
numbers become significant when
marked with a bar above the zero(s).
If the trailing zeros have neither a
decimal point nor overbar(s), they
are assumed to be nonsignificant.
93,000,000 2 Sig. Figs.
360,000 2 Sig. Figs.
330,300 4 Sig. Figs.
6310 3 Sig. Figs.
Determine the number of significant figures in the
numerical value in each of the following.
(a)0.05082
4 Sig. Figs. The leading zeros are not significant
(rule 2) and the confined zero is significant (rule 3).
(b) 6,600,000,000,000,000,000,000
2 sig. figs. The trailing zeros are not significant
because no decimal point or overbar notation is
present (rule 4).
(c) 4850
3 sig. figs. The trailing zero is not significant (rule 4).
(d) 41.0
3 significant figures. The trailing zero is significant
because a decimal point is present (rule 4).
What meaning, in terms of significant
figures and magnitude of uncertainty,
is conveyed by each of the following
written notations for this number?
(a) 3 sig. figs. The confined zero is significant but the trailing
zeros are not. Since the last significant digit, the 5, is located in
the fourth place to the left of the understood decimal point (the
thousands place), the uncertainty is 1000.
(b) 4 sig. figs. The overbar above the first of the three trailing
zeros makes this zero significant. The last significant digit, the
zero with the overbar, occupies the hundreds place in the
number. Thus, the uncertainty is 100.
(c) 6 sig. figs. . Explicitly placing a decimal point at the end of
the number makes all the trailing zeros significant. The
uncertainty is 1 since the last of the trailing zeros is in the
ones position.
(d) With the overbar notation present on all trailing zeros, all six
digits present are significant. The uncertainty is 1 since the
last of the trailing zeros is in the ones position.
To record correctly the numbers obtained
through calculations, students must be able to
(1)round off numbers to a specified number of
significant figures.
(2)determine the correct number of significant figures.
Rounding Off Numbers
Is the process of deleting unwanted (nonsignificant)
digits from a calculated number.
RULE 1 If the first digit to be dropped is less than 5,
that digit and all digits that follow it are simply
dropped.
62.312 rounded off to three sig. figs. becomes 62.3.
RULE 2 If the first digit to be dropped is a
digit 5 followed by digits other than zeros,
the excess digits are all dropped and the last
retained digit is increased in value by one
unit. Example, 62.782 and 62.558 rounded
off to three significant figures become, 62.8
and 62.6 respectively
RULE 3 If the first digit to be dropped is =5
not followed by any other digit or followed
only by zeros, an oddeven rule applies.
Drop the 5 and any zeros that follow it and
then
(a) increase the last retained digit by one
unit if it is odd, or
(b) leave the last retained digit the same if it
is even.
Thus, 62.650 and 62.350 rounded to three
significant figures become, respectively,
62.6 (even rule) and 62.4 (odd rule). The
number zero as a last retained digit is
always considered an even number; thus,
62.050 rounded to three significant
figures becomes 62.0.
Rounding Numbers to a Specified Number of
Significant Figures
Round off each of the following numbers to two
(a) 25.7 (b) 25.37 (c) 432,117
(d) 0.435 (e) 62.50 (f) 13,500
SOLUTION
(a) Rule 2 applies. The last retained digit (the 5) is
increased in value by one unit.
25.7 becomes 26
(b) Rule 1 applies. The last retained digit (the 5)
remains the same, and all digits that follow it are
simply dropped.
25.37 becomes 25
(c) Since the first digit to be dropped is a 2, rule 1 applies.
432,117 becomes 430,000. Note that to maintain the
position of the inferred decimal point, nonsignigicant zeros
must replace all of the dropped digits. This will always be
the case when digits to the left of the inferred decimal
place are dropped.
(d) Rule 3 applies. The first and only digit to be dropped is
a 5. The last retained digit (the 3) is an odd number, so,
using the oddeven rule, its value is increased by one unit.
0.435 becomes 0.44.
(e) Rule 3 applies again. This time the last digit retained is
even (the 2), so its value is not changed. 62.50 becomes
62.
(f ) This is a rule 3 situation again. Since an odd digit (the
3) occupies the second significant figure place, its value is
increased by one. 13,500 becomes 14,000
RULE 1 Multiplication and Division. In multiplication
and division, the number of significant figures in the
product or quotient is the same as in the number in the
calculation that contains the fewest significant figures.
RULE 2 ddition and Subtraction. In addition and
subtraction of a series of measurements, the
uncertainty in the answer should be the same as that
of the measurement in the series that has the greatest
uncertainty.
Without actually doing any multiplications, indicate the
number of significant figures that should be present in the
answer to each of the multiplications. Assume that all
numbers are measured quantities.
(a) 6.00 x 6.00 x 6.00 (b) 6.00 x 0.600 x 60.60
(c) 0.006 x 0.060 x 0.600 (d) 60,600 x 6060 x 606
SOLUTION
(a) Each number to be multiplied contains 3 sig. figs. Thus,
the answer should also contain 3 sig. figs.
(b) The first two input numbers contain 3 sig. figs and the
third number contains 4 sig. figs. Thus, the answer should
also contain 3 sig. figs.
(c) The input numbers contain, 1, 2, and 3 sig. figs. Thus, the
answer should also contain 1 sig. fig.
(d) All three input numbers contain 3 sig. figs. Thus, the
answer should contain 3 sig. figs.
Perform the following computations, all of which involve
multiplication and/or division. Express your answers to the
proper number of significant figures. Assume that all numbers
are measured quantities.
SOLUTION
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Compute to the proper number of significant figures.
(a) 13.01 + 13.001 + 13.010 (b) 10.2 + 3.4 + 6.01
(c) 0.6700 - 0.6644 (d) 34.7 + 0.0007
SOLUTION
(a) The calculator answer to this problem is 13.01 + 13.001 +
13.010 = 39.021
The uncertainties in the input numbers are
13.01 hundredths
13.001 thousandths
13.010 thousandths
(b)
(a) 13.01 + 13.001 + 13.010 (b) 10.2 + 3.4 +
6.01
(c) 0.6700 - 0.6644 (d) 34.7 +
0.0007
(c) The calculator answer to this problem is
0.6700 - 0.6644 = 0.0056
Both input numbers are known to the ten-thousandths
place. Thus, the answer should also have an
uncertainty involving the ten-thousandths place.
(d)
multiplication/division and
addition/subtraction
23.77 x (1.3 + 2.58 + 6.671)
Addition: 1.3 + 2.58 + 6.671 = 10.551
(calculator answer)
= 10.6 (uncertainty of tenths based on the
addition/subtraction rule)
Multiplication: 23.77 x 10.6 = 251.962
(calculator answer)
= 252 (correct answer, three significant
figures based on the
multiplication/division rule)
The conventions of significant figures do not apply to
exact numbers because there is no uncertainty
associated with them.
What would be the total combined length, in
centimeters, of 143 new pencils, each of
which has a length of 19.13 centimeters (cm)?
SOLUTION
Since a pencil has a length of 19.13 cm, the
length of 143 such pencils will be
143 x 19.13 cm = 2735.59 cm (calc. answer)
2735.59 cm becomes 2736 cm (correct answer)
Scientific notation is a numerical system in which an
ordinary decimal number is expressed as a product of
a number between 1 and 10 and 10 raised to a power.
RULE 1 The coefficient must be a number between 1
and 10 that contains the same number of significant
figures as are present in the original decimal number.
For 233,000, the coefficient is 2.33
For 0.00557, the coefficient is 5.57
For 0.35500, the coefficient is 3.5500
RULE 2 The value of the exponent for the power of
ten is obtained by counting the number of places the
decimal point in the coefficient must be moved to give
back the original decimal number. If the decimal point
movement is to the right, the exponent has a positive
value and if the decimal point movement is to the left,
the exponent has a negative value.
Without use of a calculator, express in scientific
notation the number in each of the following.
(a) 186,000.
(b) 320,000,000,000,000,000,000.
(c) 0.0016.
(d) 0.00000010.
(b) 320,000,000,000,000,000,000.
(c) 0.0016.
(d) 0.00000010.
Without use of a calculator, convert the
scientific notation number in each of the
following
5.3127 x 10
4
/ 2.5 x 10
4
/ 1.1 x 10
-8
/ 1.67 x 10
-24
Units
Always write every number with its
associated unit.
Always include units in your calculations.
You can do the same kind of operations on
units as you can with numbers.
cm cm = cm
2
cm + cm = cm
cm cm = 1
Using units as a guide to problem solving is
called dimensional analysis.
93
The Standard Units
Scientists have agreed on a set of
international standard units for comparing all
our measurements called the SI units.
Systme International = International System
Quantity Unit Symbol
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
temperature kelvin K
94
Length
measure of the two-dimensional distance an object covers
often need to measure lengths that are very long
(distances between stars) or very short (distances
between atoms)
SI unit = meter
About 3.37 inches longer than a yard
1 meter = distance traveled by light in a specific period of time
commonly use centimeters (cm)
1 m = 100 cm
1 cm = 0.01 m = 10 mm
1 inch = 2.54 cm (exactly)
95
Mass
measure of the amount of matter present in an
object
Weight measures the gravitational pull on an object,
which depends on its mass.
SI unit = kilogram (kg)
about 2 lb, 3 oz
commonly measure mass in grams (g) or
milligrams (mg)
1 kg = 2.2046 lb, 1 lb = 453.59 g
1 kg = 1000 g = 10
3
g
1 g = 1000 mg = 10
3
mg
1 g = 0.001 kg = 10
3
kg
1 mg = 0.001 g = 10
3
g
96
Time
measure of the duration of an event
SI units = second (s)
1 s is defined as the period of time it
takes for a specific number of radiation
events of a specific transition from
cesium-133.
Temperature
measure of the average amount of kinetic energy
higher temperature = larger average kinetic energy
Heat flows from the matter that has high thermal
energy into matter that has low thermal energy.
until they reach the same temperature
Heat is exchanged through molecular collisions between
the two materials.
Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit scale, F
used in the U.S.
Celsius scale, C
used in all other countries
Kelvin scale, K
absolute scale
no negative numbers
directly proportional to
average amount of kinetic
energy
0 K = absolute zero
99
Fahrenheit vs. Celsius
A Celsius degree is 1.8 times larger than a
Fahrenheit degree.
The standard used for 0 on the
Fahrenheit scale is a lower temperature
than the standard used for 0 on the
Celsius scale.
100
Kelvin vs. Celsius
The size of a degree on the Kelvin scale
is the same as on the Celsius scale.
Though, technically, we dont call the divisions
on the Kelvin scale degrees; we call them
kelvins!
So 1 kelvin is 1.8 times larger than 1 F.
The 0 standard on the Kelvin scale is a
much lower temperature than on the
Celsius scale.
Example 1.2 Convert 40.00 C into K and F
Substitute and compute.
Solve the equation for the
quantity you want to find.
40.00 C
F
Given:
Find:
Equation:
Find the equation that relates
the given quantity to the quantity
you want to find.
K = C + 273.15
K = 40.00 + 273.15
K = 313.15 K
Since the equation is solved for
the quantity you want to find,
substitute and compute.
40.00 C
K
K = C + 273.15
Given:
Find:
Equation:
the given quantity to the quantity
you want to find.
PracticeConvert 0.0 F into Kelvin
103
PracticeConvert 0.0 F into Kelvin
Units and magnitude make
sense.
Check: Check
255.37 K = 255 K Round: Sig. figs. and
round
Solution:
Follow the
conceptual plan
to solve the
problem.
Conceptual
Plan:
Equations:
Strategize
0.0 F
kelvin
Given:
Find:
Sort information
F C K
Related Units in the
SI System
All units in the SI system are related to the
standard unit by a power of 10.
The power of 10 is indicated by a prefix
multiplier.
The prefix multipliers are always the same,
regardless of the standard unit.
Report measurements with a unit that is
close to the size of the quantity being
measured.
Common Prefix Multipliers in the
SI System
Prefix Symbol
Decimal
Equivalent
Power of 10
mega- M 1,000,000 Base x 10
6
kilo- k 1,000 Base x 10
3
deci- d 0.1 Base x 10
1
centi- c 0.01 Base x 10
2
milli- m 0.001 Base x 10
3
micro- or mc 0.000 001 Base x 10
6
nano- n 0.000 000 001 Base x 10
9
pico p 0.000 000 000 001 Base x 10
12
Volume
derived unit
any length unit cubed
measure of the amount of space
occupied
SI unit = cubic meter (m
3
)
commonly measure solid volume in
cubic centimeters (cm
3
)
1 m
3
= 10
6
cm
3
1 cm
3
= 10
6
m
3
= 0.000 001 m
3
commonly measure liquid or gas
volume in milliliters (mL)
1 L is slightly larger than 1 quart
1 L = 1 dm
3
= 1000 mL = 10
3
mL
1 mL = 0.001 L = 10
3
L
1 mL = 1 cm
3
Common Units and Their
Equivalents
Length
1 kilometer (km) = 0.6214 mile (mi)
1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches (in)
1 meter (m) = 1.094 yards (yd)
1 foot (ft) = 30.48 centimeters (cm)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
exactly
Common Units and Their
Equivalents
Volume
1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL)
1 liter (L) = 1000 cubic centimeters (cm
3
)
1 liter (L) = 1.057 quarts (qt)
1 U.S. gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters (L)
Mass
1 kilogram (km) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 pound (lb) = 453.59 grams (g)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grams (g)
PracticeWhich of the Following Units
Would Be Best Used for Measuring the
Diameter of a Quarter?
a) kilometer
b) meter
c) centimeter
d) micrometer
e) megameters
a) kilometer
b) meter
c) centimeter
d) micrometer
e) megameters
Density
Mass and Volume
two main physical properties of matter
Mass and volume are extensive properties.
The value depends on the quantity of matter.
Extensive properties cannot be used to identify
what type of matter something is.
If you are given a large glass containing 100 g of a
clear, colorless liquid and a small glass containing 25 g
of a clear, colorless liquid, are both liquids the same
stuff?
Even though mass and volume are individual
properties, for a given type of matter they are
related to each other!
Mass vs. Volume of Brass
Volume vs. Mass of Brass
y = 8.38x
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Volume, cm
3
M
a
s
s
,

g
Density
Ratio of mass:volume is an intensive property.
value independent of the quantity of matter
solids = g/cm
3
1 cm
3
= 1 mL
liquids = g/mL
gases = g/L
volume of a solid can be determined by
water displacement Archimedes principle
density: solids > liquids >>> gases
except ice is less dense than liquid water!
Density
For equal volumes, the
denser object has larger
mass.
For equal masses, the
denser object has smaller
volume.
Heating an object generally
causes it to expand;
therefore, the density
changes with temperature.
Example 1.3 Decide whether a ring with a mass of
3.15 g that displaces 0.233 cm
3
of water is platinum
Density of platinum
= 21.4 g/cm
3
;
therefore, not
platinum
Compare to accepted value of
the intensive property.
Since the equation is solved
for the quantity you want to
find, and the units are correct,
substitute and compute.
mass = 3.15 g
volume = 0.233 cm
3
density, g/cm
3
Given:
Find:
Equation:
the given quantity to the
quantity you want to find.
Calculating Density
What is the density of brass if 100.0 g
added to a cylinder of water causes the
water level to rise from 25.0 mL to 36.9 mL?
118
What is the density of brass?
Units and magnitude make sense. Check: Check
8.4033 g/cm
3
= 8.40 g/cm
3
Round: Sig. figs. and
round
Solution:
V = 36.925.0
= 11.9 mL
= 11.9 cm
3
Solve the
equation for
the unknown
variable
Conceptual
Plan:
Equation:
Strategize
mass = 100 g
Vol displ: 25.0 36.9 mL
d, g/cm
3
Given:
Find:
Sort
information
m, V d
Solving
Chemical Problems
Equations and
Dimensional Analysis
Problem Solving and
Many problems in chemistry involve using
relationships to convert one unit of
measurement to another.
Conversion factors are relationships between
two units.
may be exact or measured
Conversion factors can be generated from
equivalence statements.
e.g., 1 inch = 2.54 cm can give or
cm 2.54
in 1
121
Arrange conversion factors so the starting unit cancels.
Arrange conversion factor so the starting unit is on the
bottom of the conversion factor.
May string conversion factors
We do not need to know every relationship, as long as
we can find something else the starting and desired
units are related to:
Problem Solving and
122
Conceptual Plan
A conceptual plan is a visual outline that
shows the strategic route required to solve a
problem.
For unit conversion, the conceptual plan
focuses on units and how to convert one to
another.
For problems that require equations, the
conceptual plan focuses on solving the
equation to find an unknown value.
123
Conceptual Plans and
Conversion Factors
Convert inches into centimeters.
1) Find relationship equivalence: 1 in = 2.54 cm.
2) Write a conceptual plan.
in in cm cm
3) Change equivalence into conversion
factors with Given unit on the bottom.
124
Systematic Approach
Sort the information from the problem.
Identify the given quantity and unit, the quantity and unit you
want to find, and any relationships implied in the problem.
Design a strategy to solve the problem
Devise a conceptual plan.
sometimes may want to work backwards
Each step involves a conversion factor or equation.
Apply the steps in the conceptual plan.
Check that units cancel properly.
Multiply terms across the top and divide by each bottom term.
Check the answer.
Double-check the setup to ensure the unit at the end is the one
you wished to find.
Check to see that the size of the number is reasonable.
Since centimeters are smaller than inches, converting inches to
centimeters should result in a larger number.
125
Example 1.7 Convert 1.76 yd to centimeters
sense.
Check: Check
160.8775 cm = 161 cm Round: Sig. figs. and
round
Solution: Follow the
conceptual
plan to solve
the problem
1 m = 1.094 yd
0.01 m = 1 cm
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
1.76 yd
length, cm
Given:
Find:
Sort
information
yd m cm
PracticeConvert 30.0 mL to quarts
(1 L = 1.057 qt)
30.0 mL
volume, qts
PracticeConvert 30.0 mL to quarts
Units and magnitude
make sense.
Check: Check
0.03171 qt = 0.0317 qt
round
Conceptual
Plan to solve
the problem
1 L = 1.057 qt
0.001 L = 1 mL
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
Given:
Find:
Sort Information
mL L qt
128
Conceptual Plans for
Units Raised to Powers
Convert cubic inches into cubic centimeters.
1) Find relationship equivalence: 1 in = 2.54 cm
2) Write conceptual plan.
in
3
in
3
cm
3
cm
3
3) Change equivalence into conversion factors with
given unit on the bottom.
129
Example 1.9 Convert 5.70 L to cubic inches
sense.
Check: Check
347.835 in
3
= 348 in
3
round
conceptual plan
to solve the
problem.
1 mL = 1 cm
3
, 1 mL = 10
3
L
1 in = 2.54 cm
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
5.70 L
volume, in
3
Given:
Find:
Sort Information
L mL cm
3
in
3
PracticeHow many cubic
centimeters are there in 2.11 yd
3
?
PracticeConvert 2.11 yd
3
to cubic centimeters
Sort
information
Given:
Find:
2.11 yd
3
volume, cm
3
Strategize Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
1 yd = 36 in
1 in = 2.54 cm
Follow the
conceptual
plan to solve
the problem.
Solution:
Sig. figs. and
round
Round: 1613210.75 cm
3
= 1.61 x 10
6
cm
3
Check Check:
sense.
yd
3
in
3
cm
3
132
Density as a Conversion Factor
can use density as a conversion factor
between mass and volume
density of H
2
O = 1.0 g/mL 1.0 g H
2
O = 1 mL H
2
O
density of Pb = 11.3 g/cm
3
11.3 g Pb = 1 cm
3
Pb
How much does 4.0 cm
3
of lead weigh?
Example 1.10 What is the mass in kg of 173,231 L
of jet fuel whose density is 0.768 g/mL?
Units and magnitude make sense.
Check: Check
1.33041 x 10
5
= 1.33 x 10
5
kg
Round:
Sig. figs. and
round
Solution:
Follow the
conceptual plan
to solve the
problem.
1 mL = 0.768 g, 1 mL = 10
-3
L
1 kg = 1000 g
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
173,231 L
density = 0.768 g/mL
mass, kg
Given:
Find:
Sort
information
L mL g kg
PracticeCalculate the following
How much does 3.0 x 10
2
mL of ether
weigh? (d = 0.71 g/mL)
What volume does 100.0 g of marble
occupy? (d = 4.0 g/cm
3
)
135
PracticeHow much does 3.0 x 10
2
mL of ether weigh?
Check: Check
2.1 x 10
2
g
round
conceptual
plan to solve
the problem.
1 mL = 0.71 g
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
3.0 x 10
2
mL
density = 0.71 g/mL
mass, g
Given:
Find:
Sort
information
mL g
PracticeWhat volume does 100.0 g of marble occupy?
Check:
Check
25 cm
3
Round:
Sig. figs. and
round
Solution:
Follow the
conceptual
plan to solve
the problem.
1 cm
3
= 4.0 g
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
m =100.0 g
density = 4.0 g/cm
3
volume, cm
3
Given:
Find:
Sort
information
g cm
3
Problem Solving with Equations
When solving a problem involves using an
equation, the conceptual plan involves
being given all the variables except the
one you want to find.
Solve the equation for the variable you
wish to find, then substitute and compute.
Example 1.12 Find the density of a metal cylinder
with mass 8.3 g, length 1.94 cm, and radius 0.55 cm
Check: Check
V = (0.55 cm)
2
(1.94 cm)
V = 1.8436 cm
3
conceptual
plan to solve
the problem.
Sig. figs. and
round
V = r
2
l
d = m/V
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
m = 8.3 g
l = 1.94 cm, r = 0.55 cm
density, g/cm
3
Given:
Find:
Sort
information
l, r V m, V d
PracticeWhat is the mass in kilograms of a cube of
lead that measures 0.12 m on each side?
(d
Pb
= 11.3 g/cm
3
)
PracticeWhat is the mass in kilograms of a
cube of lead that measures 0.12 m on each side?
Check:
Check
V = (0.12 m)
3
V = 1.728 x 10
3
m
3
Solution:
Follow the
conceptual
plan to solve
the problem.
Sig. figs. and
round
V = l
3
, 11.3 g = 1 cm
3
,
1 cm = 10
2
m, 1 kg = 10
3
g
Conceptual
Plan:
Relationships:
Strategize
l = 0.12 m, d = 11.3 g/cm
3
mass, kg
Given:
Find:
Sort
information
l V
m
3
cm
3
g kg
1.10 Writing Conversion Factors
Equalities
use two different units to describe the same measured amount.
are written for relationships between units of the metric system,
U.S. units, or between metric and U.S. units.
For example,
1 m = 1000 mm
1 lb = 16 oz
2.205 lb = 1 kg
Equalities between units of the same system are definitions and
use exact numbers.
different systems (metric and U.S.) use measured numbers and
count as significant figures.
Some Common Equalities
A conversion factor
is a fraction obtained from an equality.
Equality: 1 in. = 2.54 cm
is written as a ratio with a numerator and denominator.
can be inverted to give two conversion factors for every
equality.
1 in. and 2.54 cm
2.54 cm 1 in.
Conversion Factors
Write conversion factors for each pair of units.
A. liters and mL
B. hours and minutes
C. meters and kilometers
Learning Check
Write conversion factors for each pair of units.
A. liters and mL Equality: 1 L = 1000 mL
1 L and 1000 mL
1000 mL 1 L
B. hours and minutes Equality: 1 hr = 60 min
1 hr and 60 min
60 min 1 hr
C. meters and kilometers Equality: 1 km = 1000 m
1 km and 1000 m
1000 m 1 km
Solution
A conversion factor
may be obtained from information in a word problem.
is written for that problem only.
Example 1:
The price of one pound (1 lb) of red peppers is $2.39.
1 lb red peppers and $2.39
$2.39 1 lb red peppers
Example 2:
The cost of one gallon (1 gal) of gas is $2.34.
1 gallon of gas and $2.34
$2.34 1 gallon of gas
Conversion Factors in a Problem
A percent factor
gives the ratio of the parts to the whole.
% = Parts x 100
Whole
uses the same unit to express the percent.
uses the value 100 and a unit for the whole.
can be written as two factors.
Example: A food contains 30% (by mass) fat.
30 g fat and 100 g food
100 g food 30 g fat
Percent as a Conversion Factor
Percent Factor in a Problem
The thickness of the skin fold at
the waist indicates 11% body
fat. What percent factors can be
written for body fat in kg?
Percent factors using kg:
11 kg fat and 100 kg mass
100 kg mass 11 kg fat
Learning Check
Write the equality and conversion factors for each of the following.
A. square meters and square centimeters
B. jewelry that contains 18% gold
C. One gallon of gas is $2.27
Solution
A. square meters and square centimeters
(1m)
2
and (100 cm)
2
(100 cm)
2
(1m)
2
B. jewelry that contains 18% gold
18 g gold and 100 g jewelry
100 g jewelry 18 g gold
C. One gallon of gas is $2.27
1 gal and $2.27
$2.27 1 gal
Problem Solving
To solve a problem
Identify the given unit
Identify the needed unit.
Example:
A person has a height of 2.0 meters.
What is that height in inches?
The given unit is the initial unit of height.
given unit = meters (m)
The needed unit is the unit for the answer.
needed unit = inches (in.)
Given and Needed Units
Learning Check
An injured person loses 0.30 pints of blood. How many
milliliters of blood would that be?
Identify the given and needed units given in this problem.
Given unit = _______
Needed unit = _______
Solution
An injured person loses 0.30 pints of blood. How many
milliliters of blood would that be?
Identify the given and needed units given in this
problem.
Given unit = pints
Needed unit = milliliters
Write the given and needed units.
Write a unit plan to convert the given unit to the needed unit.
Write equalities and conversion factors that connect the units.
Use conversion factors to cancel the given unit and provide
the needed unit.
Unit 1 x Unit 2 = Unit 2
Unit 1
Given x Conversion = Needed
unit factor unit
Problem Setup
How many minutes are 2.5 hours?
Given unit = 2.5 hr
Needed unit = min
Unit Plan = hr min
Setup problem to cancel hours (hr).
Given Conversion Needed
unit factor unit
2.5 hr x 60 min = 150 min (2 SF)
1 hr
Setting up a Problem
A rattlesnake is 2.44 m long. How many centimeters long is
the snake?
1) 2440 cm 2) 244 cm 3) 24.4 cm
Learning Check
A rattlesnake is 2.44 m long. How many centimeters long is
the snake?
2) 244 cm
Given Conversion Needed
unit factor unit
2.44 m x 100 cm = 244 cm
1 m
Solution
Often, two or more conversion factors are required to obtain
the unit needed for the answer.
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3
Additional conversion factors are placed in the setup to cancel
each preceding unit
Given unit x factor 1 x factor 2 = needed unit
Unit 1 x Unit 2 x Unit 3 = Unit 3
Unit 1 Unit 2
Using Two or More Factors
How many minutes are in 1.4 days?
Given unit: 1.4 days
Factor 1 Factor 2
Plan: days hr min
Set up problem:
1.4 days x 24 hr x 60 min = 2.0 x 10
3
min
1 day 1 hr
2 SF Exact Exact = 2 SF
Example: Problem Solving
Be sure to check your unit cancellation in the setup.
The units in the conversion factors must cancel to give the correct unit for
the answer.
What is wrong with the following setup?
1.4 day x 1 day x 1 hr
24 hr 60 min
Units = day
2
/min is not the unit needed
Units dont cancel properly.
Check the Unit Cancellation
Practice Solving Problems
How many significant figures
should be shown for the
calculation?
1
2
3
4
5

1.25 + 0.45
2.734
Estimate room
temperature
(~72F) in C.
~ 15C
~ 22C
~ 27C
~ 32C
~ 37C
Which represents the largest
volume?
0.25 L
2.5 x 10
2
mL
2.5 x 10
6
L
2.5 x 10
8
nL
2.5 x 10
10
pL
What is the elemental symbol for
sodium?
1. S
2. Na
3. Sn
4. Sm
5. Sr
A microgram (g) is equal to how many
grams?
1. 1 - 10
6
g
2. 1 - 10
3
g
3. 10
4. 1 - 10
3
g
5. 1 - 10
6
g
Which of the following is the smallest
volume?
1. 400 microliters
2. 4 milliliters
3. 0.4 centiliters
4. 4 - 10
5
liters
5. 4 - 10
5
nanoliters
A temperature of 68
F is equal to what
temperature in degrees Celsius (
C)?
1. 10
2. 12
3. 16
4. 20
5. 24
Correct Answer:
9

32 F
5
C -
C = 5/9 (68 32) = 5/9(36) = 20 C

1. 10
2. 12
3. 16
4. 20
5. 24
The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is 77 K.
What is this temperature in degrees
Celsius (
C)?
1. 350
2. 77
3. 196
4. 273
5. 0
C = K 273.15
Correct Answer:
C = K 273.15
C = 77 273.15
C = 196.15 K,
or 196 K
1. 350
2. 77
3. 196
4. 273
5. 0
A perfect cube of an unknown substance
10.0 cm in each dimension weighs 1.59 kg.
What is the unknowns density
(in g/cm
3
)?
1. 0.159 g/cm
3
2. 1.59 g/cm
3
3. 15.9 g/cm
3
4. 159 g/cm
3
5. None of the above
is correct.
Correct Answer:
volume
mass
Density !
Density = 1.59 kg/(10.0 cm)
3
Density = 1.59 kg(1000 g/1 kg)/1000. cm
3
Density = 1.59 g/cm
3
1. 0.159 g/cm
3
2. 1.59 g/cm
3
3. 15.9 g/cm
3
4. 159 g/cm
3
5. None of the above
is correct.
Which will have the larger volume:
25 g of Cu (8.94 g/cm
3
) or 25 g of Pb
(11.34 g/cm
3
)?
1. 25 g Cu
2. 25 g Pb
3. They will occupy the
same volume.
Correct Answer:
According to the density, 25
g Cu will occupy
2.80 cm
3
while 25 g Pb will
occupy only 2.20 cm
3
.
1. 25 g Cu
2. 25 g Pb
3. They will occupy the
same volume.
How many significant figures are there in
the following number: 1.200 10
9
?
1. 4
2. 3
3. 2
4. 1
5. Cannot deduce from
given information.
Correct Answer:
Zeros that fall both at the
end of a number and after
the decimal point are
always significant.
1.200 - 10
9
1. 4
2. 3
3. 2
4. 1
5. Cannot deduce from
given information.
6.220
1.0
+ 125
the following summation:
1. 2
2. 3
3. 4
4. 5
5. 6
6.220
1.0
+ 125
132.220
Correct Answer:
In addition and subtraction the result can have no
more decimal places than the measurement with the
fewest number of decimal places.
1. 2
2. 3
3. 4
4. 5
5. 6
the result of the following multiplication:
(2.54) - (6.2) - (12.000)
1. 2
2. 3
3. 4
4. 5
Correct Answer:
In multiplication and division the result must be reported
with the same number of significant figures as the
measurement with the fewest significant figures.
(2.54) - (6.2) - (12.000) = 2285.01 = 2300
1. 2
2. 3
3. 4
4. 5
a.
1. about 1000 elements
a.
b.
1. atoms and molecules
2. cells
3. microcrystals
4. metals and nonmetals
b.
1. atoms and molecules
2. cells
3. microcrystals
4. metals and nonmetals
1. H
2. Fe
3. O
4. Ca
1. H
2. Fe
3. O
4. Ca
1. There are three atoms making up water.
2. The water molecule contains atoms of
two different elements.
3. Water has more than one bond.
4. Water has a higher mass than hydrogen
and oxygen.
1. There are three atoms making up water.
2. The water molecule contains atoms of
two different elements.
3. Water has more than one bond.
4. Water has a higher mass than hydrogen
and oxygen.
a.
1. a chemical change
2. cannot determine without additional
information
3. neither a physical nor a chemical
change
4. a physical change
a.
information
change
b.
information
change
b.
information
change
1. 1 mg
2. 1 g
3. 1 pg
1. 1 mg
2. 1 g
3. 1 pg
1. the number of people in your chemistry
class
2. the mass of a penny
3. the number of grams in a kilogram
1. the number of people in your chemistry
class
2. the mass of a penny
3. the number of grams in a kilogram
1. Conversion factors must have at least half
as many significant figures as the data.
2. The number of significant figures in
conversion factors does not matter.
3. Conversion factors must always have at
least the number of significant figures as
the data being converted.
4. Conversion factors must have at least two
more significant figures than the data being
converted.
1. Conversion factors must have at least half
as many significant figures as the data.
2. The number of significant figures in
conversion factors does not matter.
3. Conversion factors must always have at
least the number of significant figures as
the data being converted.
4. Conversion factors must have at least two
more significant figures than the data being
converted.
Accuracy versus Precision
Accuracy refers to the proximity of a
measurement to the true value of a
quantity.
Precision refers to the proximity of
several measurements to each
other.
Which of the following is a hypothesis?
a. Bubbles form when a liquid is heated in a tea pot.
The bubbles are the gas state of the original liquid.
The molecules in the liquid have enough energy to
escape.
We can test whether the bubbles are the gas state of the
liquid by removing the heat, at which point the gas should
condense.
Which of the following is a hypothesis?
a. Bubbles form when a liquid is heated in a tea pot.
The bubbles are the gas state of the original liquid.
The molecules in the liquid have enough energy to
escape.
We can test whether the bubbles are the gas state of the
liquid by removing the heat, at which point the gas should
condense.
Which of the following is correct for the material pictured?
a. a gaseous pure substance
a liquid pure substance
a gaseous mixture
a solid mixture
none of the above
Which of the following is correct for the material pictured?
a. a gaseous pure substance
a liquid pure substance
a gaseous mixture
a solid mixture
none of the above
Which of the following has the largest
density?
a material that has a mass of
10.0 g and a volume of 2.00 L
a material that has a volume of
5.00 g and a volume of 10.0
cm
3
a material that sinks in ethanol
but floats on water
Which of the following has the largest
density?
a. a material that has a mass of
10.0 g and a volume of 2.00 L
b. a material that has a volume of
5.00 g and a volume of 10.0
cm
3
c. a material that sinks in
ethanol but floats on water
When reading a graduated cylinder, read the volume at the
bottom of the meniscus.
What volume of liquid is in the graduated cylinder?
a. 4 mL
b. 5 mL
c. 4.5 mL
d. 4.6 mL
e. 4.56 mL
When reading a graduated cylinder, read the volume at the
bottom of the meniscus.
What volume of liquid is in the graduated cylinder?
a. 4 mL
b. 5 mL
c. 4.5 mL
d. 4.6 mL
e. 4.56 mL
A student measures the mass of a penny 4 times and
records the following data. What can be said about the data
if the actual mass of the penny is 2.4987 g?
a. The data is both accurate and
precise.
The data is neither accurate nor
precise.
The data is accurate but not
precise.
The data is not accurate but it
is precise.
Trial
Number
Mass,
g
1 2.5104
2 2.5106
3 2.5102
4 2.5109
A student measures the mass of a penny 4 times and
records the following data. What can be said about the data
if the actual mass of the penny is 2.4987 g?
a. The data is both accurate and
precise.
The data is neither accurate nor
precise.
The data is accurate but not
precise.
The data is not accurate but
it is precise.
Trial
Number
Mass,
g
1 2.5104
2 2.5106
3 2.5102
4 2.5109
Which of the following represents a chemical change?
a. freezing water to make ice cubes
dry ice evaporating at room temperature
toasting a piece of bread
dissolving sugar in hot coffee
crushing an aluminum can
Which of the following represents a chemical change?
a. freezing water to make ice cubes
dry ice evaporating at room temperature
toasting a piece of bread
dissolving sugar in hot coffee
crushing an aluminum can
Chlorine vaporizes at 34.4 C. What is this temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit?
a. 34.4 F
29.9 F
238.75 F
307.55 F
273.15 F
Chlorine vaporizes at 34.4 C. What is this temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit?
a. 34.4 F
29.9 F
238.75 F
307.55 F
273.15 F
Which of the following would NOT be considered an
intensive property describing an unknown sample?
a. It is a solid at 25 C.
It has a density of 1.38 g/cm
3
.
It melts at 62.0 C.
It has a volume of 0.52 cm
3
.
It is shiny.
Which of the following would NOT be considered an
intensive property describing an unknown sample?
a. It is a solid at 25 C.
It has a density of 1.38 g/cm
3
.
It melts at 62.0 C.
It has a volume of 0.52 cm
3
.
It is shiny.
Calculate the following with the correct number of
a. 2
1.4
2.2
1.36
2.23
(1.428 1.08)
0.288
+ (2.83 x 0.360) =
Calculate the following with the correct number of
a. 2
1.4
2.2
1.36
2.23
(1.428 1.08)
0.288
+ (2.83 x 0.360) =
Determine the mass of 2.5 cups of water if the density of
water is 1.00 g/cm
3
and 1 cup = 240 mL.
a. 2.5 g
6.0 x 10
2
g
1.0 x 10
2
g
2.4 x 10
2
g
1.0 x 10
2
g
Determine the mass of 2.5 cups of water if the density of
water is 1.00 g/cm
3
and 1 cup = 240 mL.
a. 2.5 g
6.0 x 10
2
g
1.0 x 10
2
g
2.4 x 10
2
g
1.0 x 10
2
g
Step by step
solved problems
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.1 Distinguishing among Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
White gold, used in jewelry, contains two elements, gold and palladium. Two different samples of
white gold differ in the relative amounts of gold and palladium that they contain. Both are uniform in
composition throughout. Without knowing any more about the materials, use Figure 1.9 to characterize
and classify white gold.
SolutionBecause the material is uniform throughout, it is homogeneous. Because its
composition differs for the two samples, it cannot be a compound. Instead, it must be a homogeneous
mixture. Gold and palladium can be said to form a solid solution with one another.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Aspirin is composed of 60.0% carbon, 4.5% hydrogen, and 35.5% oxygen by mass, regardless of its
source. Use Figure 1.9 to characterize and classify aspirin.
Answer: It is a compound because it has constant composition and can be separated into several
elements.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.2 Using Metric Prefixes
What is the name given to the unit that equals (a) 10
9
gram, (b) 10
6
second, (c) 10
3
meter?
SolutionIn each case we can refer to Table 1.5, finding the prefix related to each of the decimal
fractions: (a) nanogram, ng, (b) microsecond, s (c) millimeter, mm.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
(a) What decimal fraction of a second is a picosecond, ps? (b) Express the measurement 6.0 - 10
3
m
using a prefix to replace the power of ten. (c) Use exponential notation to express 3.76 mg in grams.
Answers: (a) 10
12
second, (b) 6.0 km, (c) 3.76 - 10
3
g
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.3 Converting Units of Temperature
If a weather forecaster predicts that the temperature for the day will reach 31C, what is the predicted
temperature (a) in K, (b) in F?
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Ethylene glycol, the major ingredient in antifreeze, freezes at 11.5C. What is the freezing point in
(a) K, (b) F?
Answers: (a) 261.7 K, (b) 11.3F
Solution(a) Using Equation 1.1, we have K = 31 + 273 = 304 K
(b) Using Equation 1.2, we have
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.4 Determining Density and Using Density to Determine
Volume or Mass
(a) Calculate the density of mercury if 1.00 - 10
2
g occupies a volume of 7.36 cm
3
.
(b) Calculate the volume of 65.0 g of the liquid methanol (wood alcohol) if its density is 0.791 g/mL.
(c) What is the mass in grams of a cube of gold (density = 19.32 g/ cm
3
) if the length of the cube is
2.00 cm?
PRACTICE EXERCISE
(a) Calculate the density of a 374.5-g sample of copper if it has a volume of 41.8 cm
3
. (b) A student
needs 15.0 g of ethanol for an experiment. If the density of ethanol is 0.789 gmL, how many milliliters
of ethanol are needed? (c) What is the mass, in grams, of 25.0 mL of mercury (density = 13.6 g/ mL)?
Answers: (a) 8.96 g/ cm
3
, (b) 19.0 mL, (c) 340 g
Solution
(a) We are given mass and volume, so Equation 1.3 yields
(b) Solving Equation 1.3 for volume and then using the given mass and density gives
(c) We can calculate the mass from the volume of the cube and its density. The volume of a cube is
given by its length cubed:
Solving Equation 1.3 for mass and substituting the volume and density of the cube, we have
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.5 Relating Significant Figures to the Uncertainty of a
Measurement
What difference exists between the measured values 4.0 g and 4.00 g?
SolutionMany people would say there is no difference, but a scientist would note the difference
in the number of significant figures in the two measurements. The value 4.0 has two significant figures,
while 4.00 has three. This difference implies that the first measurement has more uncertainty. A mass
of 4.0 g indicates that the uncertainty is in the first decimal place of the measurement. Thus, the mass
might be anything between 3.9 and 4.1 g, which we can represent as 4.0 0.1 g. A measurement of
4.00 g implies that the uncertainty is in the second decimal place. Thus, the mass might be anything
between 3.99 and 4.01 g, which we can represent as 4.00 0.01 g. Without further information, we
cannot be sure whether the difference in uncertainties of the two measurements reflects the precision
or accuracy of the measurement.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
A balance has a precision of 0.001 g. A sample that has a mass of about 25 g is placed on this
balance. How many significant figures should be reported for this measurement?
Answer: five, as in the measurement 24.995 g
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.6 Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a Measurement
How many significant figures are in each of the following numbers (assume that each number is a
measured quantity): (a) 4.003, (b) 6.023 - 10
23
, (c) 5000?
Solution(a) Four; the zeros are significant figures. (b) Four; the exponential term does not add
to the number of significant figures. (c) One. We assume that the zeros are not significant when there
is no decimal point shown. If the number has more significant figures, a decimal point should be
employed or the number written in exponential notation. Thus, 5000. has four significant figures,
whereas 5.00 - 10
3
has three.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
How many significant figures are in each of the following measurements: (a) 3.549 g, (b) 23 - 10
4
cm,
(c) 0.00134 m
3
?
Answers: (a) four, (b) two, (c) three
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.7 Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a
Calculated Quantity
The width, length, and height of a small box are 15.5 cm, 27.3 cm, and 5.4 cm, respectively. Calculate
the volume of the box, using the correct number of significant figures in your answer.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
It takes 10.5 s for a sprinter to run 100.00 m. Calculate the average speed of the sprinter in meters per
second, and express the result to the correct number of significant figures.
Answer: 9.52 m/s (3 significant figures)
SolutionThe volume of a box is determined by the product of its width, length, and height. In
reporting the product, we can show only as many significant figures as given in the dimension with the
fewest significant figures, that for the height (two significant figures):
When we use a calculator to do this calculation, the display shows 2285.01, which we must round off
to two significant figures. Because the resulting number is 2300, it is best reported in exponential
notation, 2.3 - 10
3
, to clearly indicate two significant figures.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.8 Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a
Calculated Quantity
A gas at 25C fills a container whose volume is 1.05 - 10
3
cm
3
. The container plus gas have a mass of
837.6 g. The container, when emptied of all gas, has a mass of 836.2 g. What is the density of the gas at
25C?
Solution
To calculate the density, we must know both the mass and the volume of the gas. The mass of the gas
is just the difference in the masses of the full and empty container:
(837.6 836.2) g = 1.4 g
PRACTICE EXERCISE
To how many significant figures should the mass of the container be measured (with and without the
gas) in Sample Exercise 1.8 in order for the density to be calculated to three significant figures?
Answer: five (In order for the difference in the two masses to have three significant figures, there must
be two decimal places in the masses of the filled and empty containers.)
In subtracting numbers, we determine the number of significant figures in our result by counting
decimal places in each quantity. In this case each quantity has one decimal place. Thus, the mass of
the gas, 1.4 g, has one decimal place.
Using the volume given in the question, 1.05 - 10
3
cm
3
, and the definition of density, we have
In dividing numbers, we determine the number of significant figures in our result by counting the
number of significant figures in each quantity. There are two significant figures in our answer,
corresponding to the smaller number of significant figures in the two numbers that form the ratio.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.9 Converting Units
If a woman has a mass of 115 lb, what is her mass in grams? (Use the relationships between units
given on the back inside cover of the text.)
PRACTICE EXERCISE
By using a conversion factor from the back inside cover, determine the length in kilometers of a 500.0-
mi automobile race.
Answer: 804.7 km
SolutionBecause we want to change from lb to g, we look for a relationship between these
units of mass. From the back inside cover we have 1 lb = 453.6 g. In order to cancel pounds and leave
grams, we write the conversion factor with grams in the numerator and pounds in the denominator:
The answer can be given to only three significant figures, the number of significant figures in 115 lb.
The process we have used is diagrammed below.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.10 Converting Units Using Two or More Conversion Factors
The average speed of a nitrogen molecule in air at 25C is 515 m/s. Convert this speed to miles per
hour.
Our answer has the desired units. We can check our calculation, using the estimating procedure
described in the previous Strategies box. The given speed is about 500 m/s. Dividing by 1000
converts m to km, giving 0.5 km/s. Because 1 mi is about 1.6 km, this speed corresponds to 0.5/1.6 =
0.3 m/s. Multiplying by 60 gives about 0.3 - 60 = 20 mi/min. Multiplying again by 60 gives 20 - 60 =
1200 mi/hr. The approximate solution (about 1200 mi/hr) and the detailed solution (1150 mi/hr) are
reasonably close. The answer to the detailed solution has three significant figures, corresponding to
the number of significant figures in the given speed in m/s.
Answer: 12 km/L
PRACTICE EXERCISE
A car travels 28 mi per gallon of gasoline. How many kilometers per liter will it go?
Solution To go from the given units, m/s, to the desired units, mi/hr, we must convert meters to
miles and seconds to hours. From the relationships given on the back inside cover of the book, we find
that 1 mi = 1.6093 km. From our knowledge of metric prefixes we know that 1 km = 10
3
m. Thus, we
can convert m to km and then convert km to mi. From our knowledge of time we know that 60 s = 1
min and 60 min = 1 hr. Thus, we can convert s to min and then convert min to hr.
Applying first the conversions for distance and then those for time, we can set up one long
equation in which unwanted units are canceled:
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.11 Converting Volume Units
Earths oceans contain approximately 1.36 - 10
9
km
3
of water. Calculate the volume in liters.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
If the volume of an object is reported as 5.0 ft
3
what is the volume in cubic meters?
Answer: 0.14 m
3
SolutionThis problem involves conversion of km
3
to L. From the back inside cover of the text
we find I L = 10
3
m
3
, but there is no relationship listed involving km
3
. From our knowledge of metric
prefixes, however, we have 1 km = 10
3
m, and we can use this relationship between lengths to write
the desired conversion factor between volumes:
Thus, converting from km
3
to m
3
to L, we have
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.12 Conversions Involving Density
What is the mass in grams of 1.00 gal of water? The density of water is 1.00 g/mL.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
The density of benzene is 0.879 g/mL. Calculate the mass in grams of 1.00 qt of benzene.
Answer: 832 g
SolutionBefore we begin solving this exercise, we note the following:
1. We are given 1.00 gal of water (the known, or given, quantity) and asked to calculate its mass in
grams (the unknown).
2. We have the following conversion factors either given, commonly known, or available on the back
inside cover of the text:
The first of these conversion factors must be used as written (with grams in the numerator) to give the
desired result, whereas the last conversion factor must be inverted in order to cancel gallons:
The units of our final answer are appropriate, and weve also taken care of our significant figures. We
can further check our calculation by the estimation procedure. We can round 1.057 off to 1. Focusing
on the numbers that dont equal 1 then gives merely 4 - 1000 = 4000 g, in agreement with the detailed
calculation.
Fig 1.9
BACK
Figure 1.9
Classification of
matter. At the
chemical level all
matter is classified
ultimately as either
elements or
compounds.
Table 1.5
BACK
More
Step by step
solved problems
(a) the evaporation of rubbing alcohol
(b) the burning of lamp oil
(c) the bleaching of hair with hydrogen peroxide
(d) the forming of frost on a cold night
EXAMPLE 1.1 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties
(a) When rubbing alcohol evaporates, it changes from liquid to gas, but it remains alcoholthis is a
physical change. The volatility (or ability to evaporate easily) of alcohol is therefore a physical property.
(b) Lamp oil burns because it reacts with oxygen in air to form carbon dioxide and waterthis is a
chemical change. The flammability of lamp oil is therefore a chemical property.
(c) Applying hydrogen peroxide to hair changes pigment molecules in hair that give it colorthis is a
chemical change. The susceptibility of hair to bleaching is therefore a chemical property.
(d) Frost forms on a cold night because water vapor in air changes its state to form solid icethis is a
physical change. The temperature at which water freezes is therefore a physical property.
Solution
Determine whether each of the following changes is physical or chemical. What kind of property (chemical or
physical) is being demonstrated in each case?
EXAMPLE 1.1 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties
(Continued)
Determine whether each of the following is a physical or chemical change.What kind of property (chemical
or physical) is being demonstrated in each case?
For Practice 1.1
(a) A copper wire is hammered flat.
(b) A nickel dissolves in acid to form a blue-green solution.
(c) Dry ice sublimes (changes into a gas) without melting.
(d) A match ignites when struck on a flint.
EXAMPLE 1.2 Converting between Temperature Scales
A sick child has a temperature of 40.00 C.What is the childs temperature in (a) K and (b) F?
(b) To convert from C to F, first find the equation
that relates these two quantities.
(a) Begin by finding the equation that relates the
quantity that is given (C) and the quantity you are
trying to find (K).
Since this equation gives the temperature in K
directly, simply substitute in the correct value for
the temperature in C and compute the answer.
Since this equation expresses C in terms of F,
you must solve the equation for F.
Now substitute C into the equation and compute
the answer.
Note: The number of digits reported in this answer
follows significant figure conventions, covered in
Section 1.7.
Solution
EXAMPLE 1.2 Converting between Temperature Scales (Continued)
Gallium is a solid metal at room temperature, but it will melt to a liquid in your hand. The melting point of
gallium is 85.6 F. What is this temperature on (a) the Celsius scale and (b) the Kelvin scale?
For Practice 1.2
EXAMPLE 1.3 Calculating Density
A man receives a platinum ring from his fiance. Before the wedding, he notices that the ring feels a little light for
its size and decides to measure its density. He places the ring on a balance and finds that it has a mass of 3.15
grams. He then finds that the ring displaces 0.233 cm
3
of water. Is the ring made of platinum? (Note: The volume of
irregularly shaped objects is often measured by the displacement of water. To use this method, the object is placed
in water and the change in volume of the water is measured. This increase in the total volume represents the volume
of water displaced by the object, and is equal to the volume of the object.)
Set up the problem by writing the important information that is given as
well as the information that you are asked to find. In this case, we are to
find the density of the ring and compare it to that of platinum.
Note: This standard way of setting up problems is discussed in detail in
Section 1.7.
Given
Find
Next, write down the equation that defines density.
Equation
Solve the problem by substituting the correct values of mass and
volume into the expression for density.
Solution
The density of the ring is much too low to be platinum (platinum density is 21.4 g/cm
3
),
and the ring is therefore a fake.
EXAMPLE 1.3 Calculating Density (Continued)
For More Practice 1.3
A metal cube has an edge length of 11.4 mm and a mass of 6.67 g.
Calculate the density of the metal and use Table 1.4 to determine
the likely identity of the metal.
For Practice 1.3
The woman in the last example is shocked that the ring is fake
and returns it. She buys a new ring that has a mass of 4.53 g and
a volume of 0.212 cm
3
. Is this ring genuine?
EXAMPLE 1.4 Reporting the Correct Number of Digits
Since the bottom of the meniscus is between the 4.5 and 4.6 mL
markings, mentally divide the space between the markings into 10 equal
spaces and estimate the next digit. In this case, you should report the
result as 4.57 mL.
What if you estimated a little differently and wrote 4.56 mL? In
general, one unit difference in the last digit is acceptable because the last
digit is estimated and different people might estimate it slightly
differently. However, if you wrote 4.63 mL, you would have misreported
the measurement.
Solution
The graduated cylinder shown at right has markings every 0.1 mL.
Report the volume (which is read at the bottom of the meniscus) to the
correct number of digits. (Note: The meniscus is the crescent-shaped
surface at the top of a column of liquid.)
For Practice 1.4
Record the temperature on the thermometer shown at right to the correct
number of digits.
(d) 1.000 x 10
5
s
EXAMPLE 1.5 Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a Number
How many significant figures are in each of the following?
(a) 0.04450 m (b) 5.0003 km
(c) 10 dm = 1 m (d) 1.000 x 10
5
s
(e) 0.00002 mm (f) 10,000 m
(b) 5.0003 km Five significant figures. The 5 and 3 are significant (rule 1) as are the three interior
zeroes (rule 2).
(c) 10 dm = 1 m Unlimited significant figures. Defined quantities have an unlimited number of significant
figures.
Four significant figures. The 1 is significant (rule 1). The trailing zeroes are after a
decimal point and therefore significant (rule 4).
(e) 0.00002 mm One significant figure. The 2 is significant (rule 1). The leading zeroes only mark the
decimal place and are therefore not significant (rule 3).
Four significant figures. The two 4s and the 5 are significant (rule 1). The trailing zero
is after a decimal point and is therefore significant (rule 4). The leading zeroes only mark
the decimal place and are therefore not significant (rule 3).
(a) 0.04450 m
(f) 10,000 m Ambiguous. The 1 is significant (rule 1) but the trailing zeroes occur before an implied
decimal point and are therefore ambiguous (rule 4).Without more information, we would
assume 1 significant figure. It is better to write this as 1 x 10
5
to indicate one significant
figure or as 1.0000 x 10
5
to indicate five (rule 4).
Solution
EXAMPLE 1.5 Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a Number
(Continued)
How many significant figures are in each of the following numbers?
(a) 554 km (b) 7 pennies
(c) 1.01 x 10
5
m (d) 0.00099 s
(e) 1.4500 km (f) 21,000 m
For Practice 1.5
EXAMPLE 1.6 Significant Figures in Calculations
Perform the following calculations to the correct number of significant figures.
(b) Round the intermediate answer (in blue) to one decimal
place to reflect the quantity with the fewest decimal places
(105.1). Notice that 105.1 is not the quantity with the
fewest significant figures, but it has the fewest decimal
places and therefore determines the number of decimal
places in the answer.
(a) Round the intermediate result (in blue) to three significant
figures to reflect the three significant figures in the least
precisely known quantity (1.10).
Solution
EXAMPLE 1.6 Significant Figures in Calculations (Continued)
Solution
(c) Mark the intermediate result to two decimal places to
reflect the number of decimal places in the quantity within
the parentheses having the fewest number of decimal
places (452.33). Round the final answer to two significant
figures to reflect the two significant figures in the least
(d) Mark the intermediate result to two significant figures to
reflect the number of significant figures in the quantity
within the parentheses having the fewest number of
significant figures (0.55). Round the final answer to one
decimal place to reflect the one decimal place in the least
EXAMPLE 1.6 Significant Figures in Calculations (Continued)
For Practice 1.6
Convert 1.76 yards to centimeters.
EXAMPLE 1.7 Unit Conversion
Given 1.76 yd
Find cm
Conceptual Plan
Relationships Used
1.094 yd = 1 m
1 m = 100 cm
(These conversion factors are from Tables 1.2 and 1.3.)
Procedure for Solving Unit
Conversion Problems
Sort Begin by sorting the information in the problem
into Given and Find.
Strategize Devise a conceptual plan for the
problem. Begin with the given quantity and symbolize
each conversion step with an arrow. Below each arrow,
write the appropriate conversion factor for that step.
Focus on the units. The conceptual plan should end at
the find quantity and its units. In these examples, the
other information needed consists of relationships
between the various units as shown.
Solve Follow the conceptual plan. Solve the
equation(s) for the find quantity (if it is not already).
Gather each of the quantities that must go into the
equation in the correct units. (Convert to the correct
units if necessary.) Substitute the numerical values
and their units into the equation(s) and compute the
answer.
Solution
Round the answer to the correct number of significant
figures.
The units (cm) are correct. The magnitude of the
answer (161) makes physical sense because a
centimeter is a much smaller unit than a yard.
Convert 1.76 yards to centimeters.
(Continued)
Conversion Problems
Check Check your answer. Are the units correct?
Does the answer make physical sense?
For Practice 1.7
Convert 288 cm to yards.
Conversion Problems
Strategize Devise a conceptual plan for the
problem. Begin with the given quantity and symbolize
each conversion step with an arrow. Below each arrow,
write the appropriate conversion factor for that step.
Focus on the units. The conceptual plan should end at
the find quantity and its units. In these examples, the
other information needed consists of relationships
between the various units as shown.
Solve Follow the conceptual plan. Solve the
equation(s) for the find quantity (if it is not already).
Gather each of the quantities that must go into the
equation in the correct units. (Convert to the correct
units if necessary.) Substitute the numerical values
and their units into the equation(s) and compute the
answer.
Convert 1.8 quarts to cubic centimeters.
Given 1.8 qt
Find cm
3
Relationships Used
1.057 qt = 1 L
1 L = 1000 mL
1 mL = 1 cm
3
(These conversion factors are from Tables 1.2 and 1.3.)
Conceptual Plan
Solution
figures.
Conversion Problems
Convert 1.8 quarts to cubic centimeters.
(Continued)
The units (cm
3
) are correct. The magnitude of the
answer (1700) makes physical sense because a cubic
centimeter is a much smaller unit than a quart.
For Practice 1.8
Convert 9255 cm
3
to gallons.
Calculate the displacement (the total volume of the cylinders through which the pistons move) of a 5.70-L
automobile engine in cubic inches.
EXAMPLE 1.9 Unit Conversions Involving Units Raised to a Power
Given 5.7 L
Find in
3
Strategize Write a conceptual plan. Begin with the
given information and devise a path to the information
that you are asked to find. Notice that for cubic units,
the conversion factors must be cubed.
Solve Follow the conceptual plan to solve the
problem. Round the answer to three significant figures
to reflect the three significant figures in the least
precisely known quantity (5.70 L). These conversion
factors are all exact and therefore do not limit the
number of significant figures.
Solution
Check The units of the answer are correct and the magnitude makes sense. The unit cubic inches is smaller than
liters, so the volume in cubic inches should be larger than the volume in liters.
Sort Sort the information in the problem into
Given and Find.
Conceptual Plan
Relationships Used
1 mL = 10
3
L
1 mL = 1 cm
3
2.54 cm = 1 in
(These conversion factors are from Tables 1.2 and 1.3)
EXAMPLE 1.9 Unit Conversions Involving Units Raised to a Power
(Continued)
A vineyard has 145 acres of Chardonnay grapes. A particular soil supplement requires 5.50 grams for every
square meter of vineyard. How many kilograms of the soil supplement are required for the entire vineyard?
(1 km
2
= 247 acres)
For Practice 1.9
How many cubic centimeters are there in 2.11 yd
3
?
The mass of fuel in a jet must be calculated before each flight to ensure that the jet is not too heavy to fly. A 747 is
fueled with 173,231 L of jet fuel. If the density of the fuel is 0.768 g/cm
3
, what is the mass of the fuel in kilograms?
EXAMPLE 1.10 Density as a Conversion Factor
Given fuel volume = 173.231 L
density of fuel = 0.768 g/cm
3
Find mass in kg
Strategize Draw the conceptual plan by
beginning with the given quantity, in this case the
volume in liters (L). The overall goal of this
problem is to find the mass. You can convert
between volume and mass using density (g/cm
3
).
However, you must first convert the volume to cm
3
.
Once you have converted the volume to cm
3
, use
the density to convert to g. Finally convert g to kg.
Conceptual Plan
Relationships Used
1 mL = 10
3
L
1 mL = 1 cm
3
d = 0.768 g/cm
3
1000 g = 1 kg
(These conversion factors are from Tables 1.2 and 1.3)
Solve Follow the conceptual plan to solve the
problem. Round the answer to three significant
figures to reflect the three significant figures in the
density.
Solution
Sort Begin by sorting the information in the
problem into Given and Find.
Check The units of the answer (kg) are correct. The magnitude makes sense because the mass (1.33 x 10
5
kg) is
similar in magnitude to the given volume (173,231 L or 1.73231 x 10
5
L) , as expected for a density close to one
(0.768 g/cm
3
).
EXAMPLE 1.10 Density as a Conversion Factor (Continued)
A drop of gasoline has a mass of 22 mg and a density of 0.754 g/cm
3
. What is its volume in cubic centimeters?
For Practice 1.10
Backpackers often use canisters of white gas to fuel a cooking stoves burner. If one canister contains 1.45 L of
white gas, and the density of the gas is 0.710 g/cm
3
, what is the mass of the fuel in kilograms?
Procedure for Solving Problems
Involving Equations
Find the radius (r), in centimeters, of a spherical water
droplet with a volume (V) of 0.058 cm
3
. For a sphere,
V = (4/3)r
3
.
EXAMPLE 1.11
Problems with Equations
Given V = 0.058 cm
3
Find r in cm
Conceptual Plan
Relationships Used
Strategize Write a conceptual plan for the problem.
Focus on the equation(s). The conceptual plan shows
how the equation takes you from the given quantity (or
quantities) to the find quantity. The conceptual plan
may have several parts, involving other equations or
required conversions. In these examples, you must use
the geometrical relationships given in the problem
statements as well as the definition of density,
d = m/V which you learned in this chapter.
The units (cm) are correct and the magnitude seems
right.
Involving Equations
Find the radius (r), in centimeters, of a spherical water
droplet with a volume (V) of 0.058 cm
3
. For a sphere,
V = (4/3)r
3
.
EXAMPLE 1.11
Problems with Equations (Continued)
Solve Follow the conceptual plan. Begin with the
given quantity and its units. Multiply by the appropriate
conversion factor(s), canceling units, to arrive at the
find quantity.
figures by following the rules in Section 1.7.
Remember that exact conversion factors do not limit
Solution
Involving Equations
For Practice 1.11
Find the radius (r) of an aluminum cylinder that is 2.00
cm long and has a mass of 12.4 g. For a cylinder,
V = r
2
l.
EXAMPLE 1.11
Involving Equations
EXAMPLE 1.12
Problems with Equations
Find the density (in g/cm
3
) of a metal cylinder with a
mass of 8.3 g, a length (l) of 1.94 cm, and a radius (r) of
0.55 cm. For a cylinder, V = r
2
l.
Given m = 8.3 g
l = 1.94 cm
r = 0.55 cm
Find d in g/cm
3
Conceptual Plan
Relationships Used
Strategize Write a conceptual plan for the problem.
Focus on the equation(s). The conceptual plan shows
how the equation takes you from the given quantity (or
quantities) to the find quantity. The conceptual plan
may have several parts, involving other equations or
required conversions. In these examples, you must use
the geometrical relationships given in the problem
statements as well as the definition of density,
d = m/V which you learned in this chapter.
Solve Follow the conceptual plan. Begin with the
given quantity and its units. Multiply by the appropriate
conversion factor(s), canceling units, to arrive at the
find quantity.
figures by following the rules in Section 1.7.
Remember that exact conversion factors do not limit
Involving Equations
EXAMPLE 1.12
Solution
Find the density (in g/cm
3
) of a metal cylinder with a
mass of 8.3 g, a length (l) of 1.94 cm, and a radius (r) of
0.55 cm. For a cylinder, V = r
2
l.
The units (g/cm
3
) are correct. The magnitude of the
answer seems correct for one of the lighter metals (see
Table 1.4).
Involving Equations
For Practice 1.12
Find the density, in g/cm
3
, of a metal cube with a mass
of 50.3 g and an edge length (l) of 2.65 cm. For a
cube,V = l
3
.
EXAMPLE 1.12
References:
1. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, 4
th
edition, H. Stephen Stoker.
2. An Introduction to General, Organic, and
Biological Chemistry, 9
th
edition, TIMBERLAKE
3. Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; and
Bruce E. Bursten

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