Sampling is an act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population. The main aim is to draw inferences or determining the characteristics of the whole population. Second aim is to test a statistical hypothesis / research hypothesis relating to population.
Sampling Concepts
Element: Unit of study individual or organization. Population: Total collection of elements under investigation. Sample: The subset of the elements of the population chosen for study. Sampling unit (elements): A sampling unit can be an individual element or a set of elements based on the sampling process used. Sampling frame: The sampling frame refers to a complete enumeration/list of the population as specified by the research problem. It is a list of all the sampling units.
Sampling Error: Error is defined as, an act, assertion (claim) or belief that intentionally deviates from what is correct, right, or true. The Difference between sample statistic and population parameter is known as sampling error. Error because of involvement human intelligence and the use of sampling methods which may be not be accurate.
It can be reduced (or eliminated) and the study findings can be assumed to be more reliable by increasing the sample size. Errors are of two types: Random Sampling Error & Non-Sampling Error. Random Sampling Error / sampling error is due to differences in sample and population - can be avoided through sample size Can be controlled through careful sample designs, large samples, etc.
Non-sampling Error: Systematic Error non-observational error measurement error. non-observational error due to non-coverage (due to probability chance) or non-response errors (occurs when data collected from the element actually selected into the sample non-cooperation due to refusal / language barriers (non-potential respondent)
2.
3. 4.
4.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING: 1. Suitable only when population is a homogeneous group with reference to characteristics. 2. Possible only when population is relatively small. 3. Possible only when complete list of all elements are present.
2.
3.
4. 5.
Need for stratification: To increase a samples statistical efficiency. Provides adequate data for analyzing the various subpopulations and applying different methods to different strata. Ensures representation to all relevant sub-groups of the population. More efficient than simple random sampling. Essential when researcher wants to study the characteristics of population sub-groups, e.g., male and female employees, etc. Stratification is useful to apply different methods of data collection, example interviews for workers and selfadministered questionnaire for executives, etc.
Suitable for large heterogeneous groups. Stratification Process: Three major decisions: Stratification base to be decided for study size of firm, or block, etc. Number of strata larger the representative ness, the better need go for sub-population groups cost of stratification to be considered. Strata sample sizes may be proportionate to stratas share of total population proportionate / disproportionate.
Specialization stream
No. of students
40 20 30 10 100
Total
12 6 9 3 30
Total
2.
3.
4.
Grade
Enrol lment
Weighting
Disproportionate sample
50
10
27.8%
(50/180*10 0)
20.0%
(10/50*100)
1.67
(33.3/20.0)
16.7
(1.67*10)
17
40
10
22.2%
(40/180*10 0)
25.0%
(10/40*100)
1.33
(33.3/25.0)
13.3
(1.33*10)
13
3 4 5 6 Total
30 30 20 10 180
10 10 10 10
10 10 7 3 60
60
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Meaning and Process: Systematic sampling is also called Fixed Interval Method. This is an alternative to random sampling. It consists of taking every kth item in the population after a random start with an item from 1 to k. Example: Suppose to select the sample of 20 students from the list of 300 students divide the sample number with total - find quotient (15). Select a number at random between 1 and 15 using lottery method/random number tables if suppose it is 9, add 9+15, - 24 is the second sample, 24+15 is third sample and so on. Interval between sample is fixed.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Advantages
1. Much simpler than random sampling. Easy to use. 2. Easy to instruct the field investigators to use this method. 3. Requires less time and less money.. 4. Limited time schedule will prefer this method. 5. Easy to check the kth sample. 6. Spread evenly over the population
Disadvantages
1. Ignores all elements between two kth elements selected. Cannot be considered as probability sampling. 2. Cannot be said as random. 3. Generalizations will be inaccurate. 4. Biased sampleno representative of the group.
Determining the number of stages in cluster sampling depends upon the geographical area of study, size of population and the consideration of costs. If number of stages are more than two, it is called as multi stage sampling. Example: Investigating the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India. Only few banks to be taken for study. Single stage select a large sampling unit states in a country (random selection of few banks). Two stage certain districts (two stage sampling- census of all banks within the districts); Three stage - certain towns and interview all banks in the chosen town. Four stage chosen town and randomly take sample banks. If we select randomly at all stages, it is called in multi stage random sampling design.
Applications of multi stage cluster sampling: The applications of cluster samplings are extensive, particularly in farm management surveys, socio-economic surveys, demographic studies, ecological studies, public opinion polls, attitude surveys, and so on. Advantages: Easier and more convenient; cost is less; convenience for field work; units can be substituted for other units within the same random; flexible. Disadvantages: Bias in cluster size; sampling error is greater; statistically less efficient; wrong representative ness will led to wrong inferences.
QUOTA SAMPLING
A convenient sampling technique involving selection of quota groups (OR) a method of stratified sampling in which selection within strata is non-random. Example: The number of respondents (quota) that are to be drawn from each several categories is specified in advance and the final selection of respondents is left to the interview who proceeds until the quota for each category is filled. Similar like stratified sampling, but the judgment of selection is left to the interviewer. Applications: Used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, leadership surveys which do not aim at precision, but quick results.
QUOTA SAMPLING
Advantages: Less costly and less time; no list of population no sampling frame; field work can be organized, no strict supervision required. Disadvantages: No precise representative sample; impossible to estimate sampling error,; findings cannot be generalized; interviewers may ignore the core respondents in slums for example; difficult to look if more variables has to be considered; high degree of classification error (heterogeneous samples).
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
It is a sample collected by building up a list of special population by using an initial set of its members as informants (chain system of referrals) . Example: Problems faced by Indians Collect some name from Indian embassy ask for some more to supply names and the procedure leds to exhaustive list of samples or to make a census survey. OR feedback on the quality products, etc. Advantages: Useful to study social groups, informal groups in an formal organization; useful for smaller populations where no frame are determined, etc. Disadvantages: Does not allow the use of probability statistical methods; difficult to apply when population is large; does not ensure the inclusion of all elements in the list.
Defining the Target Population: Target population example: Kitchen appliances ovens sampling unit to be defined - women age working income group - location. Well defined population. Specifying the sampling frame (list of elements from which the sample may be drawn): Ideal sampling frame database telephone directories, list of credit cards, mobile phone users, etc. OR Private players provide database various demographic and economic variables, etc.
Specifying the sampling Unit : Sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the population to be sampled. In above example: Household is sampling unit women in household is the sampling element OR each individual element would be a sample unit. Sampling methods: Probability and nonprobability techniques. Sample Size: Crucial role in sampling process. various techniques to determine the sample size.
Sample Size: Crucial role in sampling process. various techniques to determine the sample size. In non-probability sampling procedures allocation of budget, number of subgroups, etc . In probability procedures formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are specified. Example: Toro Yemane formula.
Specifying the sampling plan: Decisions and implementation of the research process are outlined. Steps taken for modus operandi. If systematic sampling of a household, - if vacant, what steps to be taken to collect, etc. Work will be easy if field work is done and plan is a guideline. Selecting the sample: select the required samples and proceed for business research.