6.

Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

6.1 Motion of Fluid Element

x Translation Rotation

x Angular Deformation

x Linear Deformation

Figure 6.1 Pictorial representation of the components of fluid motion

The acceleration of a fluid particle can be expressed as

T ap !

T DV Dt ]
Total acceleration of a particle

T T T xV xV xV !u v w  xx xy xz        
Convective acceleration

T xV xt ]
Local acceleration

Du xu xu xu xu !u v w  axp ! Dt xx xy xz xt Dv xv xv xv xv !u v w  a yp ! Dt xx xy xz xt Dw xw xw xw xw !u v w  azp ! Dt xx xy xz xt

(6.1)

6.1.1 Fluid Rotation

y

T T T T [ ! i [x  j [y  k[z

(\ (F b (y a O (x (E a (L

Figure 6.2 Rotation of a fluid element in a two-dimensional flow field

using a Taylor series expansion, as

xY Y ! Yo  (x xx

The angular velocity of line oa is given by

HE (L / (x woa ! lim ! lim (t p0 (t (t p0 (t

since

xY (L ! ( x (t xx

woa

xY / xx (x(t / (x ! xY ! lim
(t p0

(t

xx

xu u ! uo  (y xy
The angular velocity of line ob is given by

(F (\ / (y ! lim wob ! lim (t p0 (t (t p0 (t

xu (\ !  (y(t xy
 xu / xy (y(t / (y xu ! wob ! lim (t p 0 (t xy

The rotation of the fluid element about the z axis is the average angular velocity of the two mutually perpendicular line elements, oa and ob, in the xy plane.

1 xv xu wz !  2 xx xy
By considering the rotation of two mutually perpendicular lines in the yz and xz planes, one can show that

1 xw xv wx !  2 xy xz

1 xu xw wy !  2 xz xx

Then,

T T T 1 Txw xv w ! i w x  j w y  k w z ! i xy  xz  2

Txu xw Txv xu j   k  (6.2) xx xy xz xx

We recognize the term in the square brackets as

curl ! xV
Then, in vector notation, we can write

1 w ! xV 2

(6.3)

T T \ ! 2 w ! xV
The vorticity, in cylindrical coordinates, is

(6.4)

T T 1 xV z xVU T xVr xV z T 1 xrV z 1 xVr V ! ir   iz    iU (6.5) xz xz xr r xr r xU r xU

The Vorticity is a measure of the rotation of a fluid element as it moves in the flow field. The circulation + is defined as the line integral of the tangential velocity component about a closed curve fixed in the flow.

+ ! Vds
c

(6.6)

velocity components on the boundaries of a fluid element shown in figure (6.3). For the closed curve oabc

xY xu d+ ! u(x  Y  (x (y  u  (y (x  Y(y xx xy
xY xu d+ !  (x(y xx xy
(y b c

d+ ! 2 wz (x(y
O

u (x a

Figure 6.3 Velocity components on the boundaries of a fluid element

Then,

+ ! Vds ! 2wz dA !
C A A

T xV z dA

(6.7)

Equation (6.7) is a statement of Stokes theorem in two dimensions. Thus the circulation around a closed contour is the sum of the vorticity enclosed within it [1].

6.1.2 Angular Deformation

y D D C

dE AB xv ! dt xx
xv H yH t xx x

and

dE AD xu ! dt xy

E B E A,A B

Figure 6.4 Combined effects of rotation and angular deformation on face ABCD of the infinitesimal fluid element

HE xy

H E AB H E AD xu xv !  !  dt dt dt xy xx

(6.8)

H E xz xu xw !  dt xz xx
H E yz dt
[z xt C d C D d D D

(6.9)

xv x w !  xz x y
xExy xt/2 D d

(6.10)

C d C

y x AA d B

B d

[z xt AA d B

B d xExyxt/2

Fig.6.5 Rotation of face ABCD of the infinitesimal fluid element

Fig.6.6 Angular deformation of face ABCD of the infinitesimal fluid element

X xy X xz X yz

x u xv !Q ! Q  dt x y xx HE xz xu x w !Q ! Q  dt xz x x HE yz xv xw !Q ! Q  dt xz xy HE xy

(6.11)

Example 6.1 For a certain two-dimensional flow field the velocity is given by the equation V= 4xyi+ 2 (x2-y2)j Is this flow irrotational?

Solution For an irrotational flow the rotation vector, w, must be zero. For the prescribed velocity field u = 4xy and therefore v= 2 (x2-y2) w= 0

1 xw xv wx !  ! 0 2 xy xz
1 xu xw wy !  ! 0 2 xz xx
1 xv xu 1 wz !  ! (4 x  4 x) ! 0 2 xx xy 2

Thus, flow is irrotational

Shear Deformation Angular Motion and Deformation Fluid elements located in a moving fluid move with the fluid and generally undergo a change in shape (angular deformation). A small rectangular fluid element is located in the space between concentric cylinders. The inner wall is fixed. As the outer wall moves, the fluid element undergoes an angular deformation. The rate at which the corner angles change (rate of angular deformation) is related to the shear stress causing the deformation.

6.2 Conservation of Mass

Conservation of mass requires the mass M, of a system remains constant as the system moves through the flow fields

DM sys Dt

!0

(6.12)

The control volume representation of the conservation of mass can be written as

T T x Vd  CS VV . n dA ! 0 x t CV

(6.13)

6.2.1 Continuity Equation

The continuity equations are developed from the general principle of conservation of mass as;

TT x Vd  VVdA 0! xt CV CS

(6.14)

Assuming that the flow is steady the equation 6.14 will become;

TT VVdA ! 0
CS

Applying the equation to the control volume shown in the figure 6.7

V1V1A1 ! V2 V2A 2

 m ! V1V1A 1 ! V2 V2 A 2
 m ! V1Q1 ! V2 Q 2 V1 ! V2 Q1 ! Q 2 ! A 1V1 ! A 2 V2
V2 dA2 V1 dA1 1 1

(6.15)

control volume

Figure 6.7 Steady flow through a streamtube

The average velocity over a cross-section is given by

1 V ! udA A
y Vv HxHz +
x ( Vv HxHz)Hy xy

(6.16)

V[ HxHy +

x ( V[ HxHy)Hz xz

Vu HyHz + Vu HyHz

x ( Vu HyHz)Hx xx

Vv HxHz x V[ HxHy

Figure 6.8 Differential control volume in rectangular coordinates

The net mass flow in x,y,z directions

x x VuHyHz  VuHyHz  VuHyHz x !  Vu xHyHz H H xx xx

x x VvHxHz  VvHxHz  VvHxHz y !  Vv xHyHz H H xy xy x x VwHxHy  VwHxHy  VwHxHy z !  Vw xHyHz H H xz xz

The total net mass flow through the control volume will be

x x x  Vu  Vv  Vw HxHyHz xy xz xx

(6.17)

The rate of change of mass inside the control volume is given by;

xV HxHyHz xt

(6.18)

This rate of change of mass is equal to the net mass which flows through the control volume. Hence, from the equations (6.17) and (6.18);

xu xv xw   !0 xx xy xz

(6.19)

Equations 6.18 and 6.19 may be compactly written in vector notation. By using fixed unit vectors in x,y,z directions,

TTT i , j, k respectively, the operator

T V

is defined as;

Tx Tx Tx ! i  j k xx xy xz

(6.20)

and the velocity vector q is given by

T T T V ! i u  jv  kw
p

(6.21)

Then;

T T T T x T x x p T . V V ! i xx  j xy  k xz . i Vu  j Vv  k Vw

x x x ! Vu  Vv  Vw xx xy xz
because

T T T T i . i ! 1, i . j ! 0
xV VV !  xt
and equation (6.19) (6.22)

etc.

.V ! 0

VU

Vr
Typical (r,U,z) point

Vz r
U

Typical Infinitesimal Element

dr dz r
dU

Cylindrical Axis

Figure 6.9 Definition sketch for the cylindrical coordinate system

The net rate of mass flow through the control surface

rxVVr rxVVU rxVVz VVr  xr  xU  xz drdUdz

The rate of change of mass inside the control volume

(6.23)

xV rdrdUdz xt

(6.24)

Hence, the continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates;

rxVVr rxVVU rxVVz xV VVr    r !0 xr xU xz xt

dividing by r gives

xVVr 1 xVVU xVVz xV VVr     !0 xr r xU xz xt

or

1 xrVVr 1 xVVU xVVz xV    !0 r xr r xU xz xt

If the flow is steady

(6.25)

x / xt ! 0
(6.26)

1 x 1 x x rVVr  r xU VVU  xz VVz ! 0 r xr

If the flow is incompressible;

xV / xt $ 0
whether flow is steady or unsteady the equation (6.26) will be;

x 1 x 1 x rVr  r xU VU  xz Vz ! 0 r xr

(6.27)

Example 6.2 The velocity components for a certain incompressible, steady flow field are

u = x2 + y2 + z2 v= xy + yz + z w= ?

Determine the form of the z component, w, required to satisfy the continuity equation.

Solution Any physically possible velocity distribution must for an incompressible fluid satisfy conservation of mass as expressed by the continuity equation

xu xv xw   !0 xx xy xz
For the given velocity distribution

xu ! 2x xx

and

xv !x z xy

so that the required expression for xw/xz is

xw !  2 x  ( x  z ) !  3x  z xz
Integration with respect to z yields

z2 w !  3 xz   f ( x, y ) 2

6.3 Stream Function for Two-Dimensional Incompressible Flow For a two-dimensional incompressible flow in the x-y plane conservation of mass can be written as

xu xv  !0 xx xy

(6.28a)

If a continuous function, (x,y,t), called the stream function, is defined such that

x] u! xy

x] and v !  xx

(6.28b)

then the continuity equation is satisfied exactly, since

xu xv x2 ] x2]  !  xx xy xxxy xyxx

(6.29)

T T T T dr ! idx  jdy  kdz

T T T T As long as the velocity vector V ! iu  jv  kw

is parallel to

, then on the streamline

T T V x dr ! 0

T r
x

T dr T

Instantaneous Streamline

X T r  dr

Figure 6.10. Relation between the velocity vector and the instantaneous streamline

Hence the equation of the streamline is

dx dy dz ! ! u v w

(6.30)

since, the flow is assumed two-dimensional. Therefore

udy  vdx ! 0

(6.31)

equation (6.31) is the equation of a streamline in a two-dimensional flow. Substituting for the velocity components u and v in terms of the stream function, , from equation (6.28), then along a streamline

x] x] dx  dy ! 0 xx xy

(6.32)

since = (x,y,t), then at an instant, to, = (x,y,t); at this instant, a change in may be evaluated

as though =(x,y). Thus, at any instant,

x] x] d] ! dx  dy xx xy

(6.33)

comparing eqs. (6.38) and (6.39), we see that along an instantaneous streamline, d =0; in a flow field,
2-

is a exact, the integral of d between any two points

1,

depends only on the end points of integration

]3

y
E F u v v B

]2 ]1

C D A

x Figure 6.11 Instantaneous streamlines in a two-dimensional flow

from the definition of a streamline, we recognize that there can be no flow across a streamline. As seen from figure 6.11 that the rate of flow between streamlines 1 and 2 across the lines AB, BC, DE, and DF must be equal. The volume flow rate, Q, between streamlines 1 and 2 can be evaluated by considering the flow across AB or across BC. For a unit depth, the flow rate across AB is [1];

x] Q ! udy ! dy y y xy
1 1

y2

y2

(6.34)

Along AB, x=constant, and

d] ! x] xy dy

, therefore,

y2 x] Q! dy ! d] ! ]2  ]1 y xy y
1 1

y2

(6.35)

For a unit depth, the flow rate across BC is

x] Q ! vdx !  dx x x xx
1 1

x2

x2

(6.35)

Along BC, y=constant, and d] ! x] / xx dx . Therefore, ?1A;

x] Q! dx !  d] ! ]2  ]1 x xx ]
1 1

x2

]2

(6.36)

In the r plane of the cylindrical coordinate system, the incompressible continuity equation can be written as

xrVr xVU  !0 xr xU

(6.37)

y
P u dy v o

x] u! xy x] v! xx
dx P d

1 x] Vr ! r xU x] VU ! xr
P d rdU r Vr

dr VU

Figure 6.12 Selection of path to show relation of velocity components to stream function

To define a stream function as

= (r, ), then the velocity components

1 x] Vr ! r xU

x] and VU !  xr

(6.38)

For rz plane of the cylindrical coordinate system, the incompressible two-dimensional continuity equation

1 xrVr xVz  !0 r xr xz

(6.39)

The stream function = (r,z) and the velocity components

1 x] Vr ! r xz

1 x] and Vz !  r xr

(6.40)

6.4 Equation Of Motion

The expressions for the body and surface forces can now be used to develop the equations of motion.

HFx ! Hm a x HFy ! Hm a y

HFz ! Hm a z

Figure 6.13 Surface forces in the x direction acting on a fluid element.

where

Hm ! V HxHyHz

and the acceleration components are given by Eq. 6.1. It now follows that

xW xx xX yx xX zx xu xu xu xu ! V u v w   Vg x  xt xz xx xy xz xy xx
xv xv xv xv   ! V u  v  w Vg y  xt xx xy xz xx xy xz
xX xz xX yz xW zz xw xw xw xw !V   Vg z  xt  u xx  v xy  w xz xz xy xx
where the element volume

(6.41a)

xX yx

xW yy

xX zy

(6.41b)

(6.41c)

HxHyHz

cancels out.

Equations 6.41 are the general differential equations of motion for a fluid

6.5 Equation Of Motion For Incompressible Flow

6.5.1 Momentum Equation (Equations of Motion) for Frictionless Flow: Euler's Equations Applying Newton's second law of motions to an infinitesimal fluid element of, dm, with sides dx, dy, and dz, as shown in figure 6.14 gives

T T dF ! a dm
T T DV dF ! V dxdydz Dt
or

(6.42)

(6.43)

There are in general two types of forces acting on a fluid. These are the body forces and the surface forces (the normal stress is the negative of the thermodynamic pressure ?3A).

T xP dz P  dxdy (  k ) T xP dx xz 2 P  dydz ( i ) xx 2
z dz

T xP dy P  dxdz ( j) xy 2
y x

P O

T xP dy P  dxdz (  j ) xy 2 dx

T xP dx P  dydz ( i ) xx 2

T xP dz dxdy ( k ) P  xz 2

Figure 6.14 The forces acting on an infinitesimal inviscid fluid

The evaluate the properties at each of the six faces of the control surface, we use a Taylor series expansion about point p. The pressure on the left face of the infinitesimal fluid is

1 xP dy 1 x2 P dy 2     . . . PAy  dy/ 2 ! P  2 2 1! xy 2 2! xy

xP dy ! P xy 2
and at the right face of the infinitesimal fluid element

1 xP dy 1 x2 P dy 2  . . . P y  dy/ 2 ! P  2 2 1! xy 2 2! xy

xP dy ! P xy 2
The net surface force acting on the element is

T T T T xP dx xP dx xP dy dydz  i  P  dydz i  P  dFs ! P  dxdz j xx 2 xx 2 xy 2

T T T xP dy xP dz xP dz dxdy  k dxdy k  P   P  dxdz  j  P  xy 2 xz 2 xz 2

or

T xP T xP T xP T dFs !  i  j k dxdydz ! Pdxdydz xy xz xx

The total force acting on the infinitesimal element is

T T T T dF ! dFb  dFs ! Vgdxdydz  Pdxdydz

Finally equation (6.43) becomes

T DV T V ! Vg  P Dt

(6.44)

That is known as the Euler's equation

T xV T T T V  V. V ! Vg  P xt

(6.45)

Equation (6.45) may be expressed in terms of three scalar equations as

Du xu xu xu xu 1 xP ax ! ! u v w !  gx Dt xt xx xy xz V xx
ay ! Dv xv xv xv xv 1 xP ! u v w !  gy Dt xt xx xy xz V xy

(6.46a)

(6.46b)

Dw xw xw xw xw 1 xP az ! ! u v w !  gz Dt xt xx xy xz V xz

(6.46c)

The momentum equation for inviscid flow also can be written in cylindrical coordinates. The equations are

1 xP xVr xVr VU xVr xVr V2 U ar !  Vr   Vz  !  gr xt xr r xU xz r V xr

(6.47a)

aU !

xVU xV V xVU xV V V 1 xP  Vr U  U  Vz U  r U !   gU xt xr xz Vr xU r xU r

(6.47b)

1 xP xVz xVz VU xVz xVz az !  Vr   Vz !  gz xt xr r xU xz V xz

(6.47c)

or

xV Vg  V ! V   . V V xt

(6.48)

6.5.2 Irrotational Flow

1 xv xu [z !  ! 0 2 xx xy
Similarly and, therfore

xv xu ! xx xy

(6.49)

x[ xu ! xy xz

(6.50)

and

xu x[ ! xz xx

(6.51)

Figure 6.15 Various regions of flow: (a) around bodies; (b) through channels

6.5.3 Bernoulli Equation Applied to Irrotational Flow The Eulers equation have been integrated along a streamline for steady, incompressible, inviscid flow to obtain the Bernoulli equation ?1A;

P V   gz =constant (along a streamline) V 2

(6.52)

This equation (6.52) can be applied between any two points on the same streamline. The value of the constant will vary, in general, from streamline to streamline. If, in addition to being inviscid, steady and incompressible, the flow field is also irrotational

T TT (the velocity field is such that 2[ ! V ! 0 ).

We can show that Bernoullis equation can be applied between any two points in the flow. Then the value of the constant in equation (6.52) is the same for all streamlines. To illustrate this, we start with Eulers equation in vector form;

TT T 1  P  gz ! (V . )V V
using the vector identify

(6.53)

T T 1 T T T TT T (V . )V ! (V . V )  V (xV ) 2

we see that for irrotational flow, since

TT .V ! 0

, then

T T 1 TT (V . )V ! (V .V ) 2

and Eulers equation for irrotational flow can be written as;

1 1 TT 1 T  P  gz ! (V . V ) ! (V 2 ) 2 2 V

(6.54)

During the interval, dt, a fluid particle moves from the vector position , to the position,

T ; the displacement, d r, is an arbitrary infinitesimal displacement in any direction.

Taking the dot product of

T T r  dr

T r

T T T T dr ! dxi  dyj  dzk

with each of the terms in equation (6.54), we have

1 T T 1 T T 2  Pdr  gzdr ! ( V )dr 2 V

and hence,

dP 1 T   gdz ! d ( V 2 ) V 2

or

dP 1 T  gdz  d ( V 2 ) ! 0 V 2

integrating this equation gives

dP V2 V  gz  2 =constant

(6.55)

For incompressible flow, V= constant, and

P V2  gz  V 2

=constant

(6.56)

T Since d r was an arbitrary displacement, then for a steady, incompressible,

inviscid flow that is also irrotational, equation (6.56) is valid between any two points in the flow field ?1A.

6.6 Inviscid Incompressible Flow

6.6.1 Stream Function
The function is known as the stream function.

Figure 6.16 definition of a stream line

can also be defined in terms of the velocity components. Thus

x U! x y

x V=x x

(6.57)

The continuity equation, in cartesian coordinates, for the flow field under consideration is

xU x V  !0 xx x y
Now introduce a function which is defined as equation 6.57

1 xV xU Wz !  2 xx xy
The condition of irrotationality is

(6.58)

xV xU ^ ! 2Wz !  !0 x x xy

(6.59)

That is called vorticity ( ). Substituting equation 6.57 into equation 6.58 will let us have the following equation

x = xx
2

x =
(6.60)

xy

x= x= d=! dx  dy ! vdx  udy x x x y

Figure 6.17 Two streamlines showing the components of the volumetric flow rate across an element of control surface joining the streamlines.

Where equation 6.57 has been used. Then the eq. of the line =constant will be

0=-vdx+udy or

dy v dx ! u =

The total volume of fluid flowing between the streamlines per-unit time per-unit depth of flow field will be

Q ! udy  vdx
A A

But it was observed earlier that

d= !  vdx  udy
so that, integrating this expression between the two points A and B, it follows that (10)

=2  =1 ! udx  vdy
A A
comparing these two expression confirms that
21=Q

Example 6.3
The velocity components in a steady, incompressible, two-dimensional flow field are

u ! 2y v ! 4x
Solution
From the definition of the stream function

x= u! 2y xy

and

x= v ! ! 4x xx

The first of these equations can be integrated to give

= ! y  f1 ( x)
2
where

f1 ( x )
where

is an arbitrary function of x. Similarly from the second equation

= !  2 x  f 2 ( y)
2

f 2 ( x)

is an arbitrary function of y. It now follows that in order to satisfy both expressions for the stream function

= !  2x  y  c
2 2
where C is an arbitrary constant.

we set C = 0 the stream function is

= !  2x  y
2

0 !  2x  y
2

or

y ! s 2x

y x  !1 = =/2

6.6.2 Potential Function

The function is defined by

xJ u! xx

xJ V=+ xy

Now for irrotational flow

xv x u ! xx x y
2

x xJ x xJ xy ! xy xx xx
2

x J x J ! xx xy x x xy

(6.61)

If the expression for u and v are substituted in the continuity equation the following result is obtained

xu xv  =0 xx xy
x xJ x xJ xx  xy xy ! 0 xx
x J xx
2 2

x J xy
2

=0

or

2J

!0

(6.62)

This is the well-known Laplace equation.

xJ xJ dJ ! 0 ! dx  dy xx xy
x= x= d= ! 0 ! dx  dy xx xy
dy xJ / xx u ! ! dx J ! const . xJ / xy v

and for

constant

from the first equation.

and for

constant

dy dx

=! const .

x= / xx v ! ! x= / xy u

Thus

dy dy ! 1  dx J !const . dx =!const .

(6.63)

Figure 6.18 shows such a network for irrotational, incompressible, twodimensional flow in a reducing elbow (12)

Figure 6.18 Orthogonal flow not for the flow in a two-dimensional reducing elbow. The net is formed by lines of constant and constant .

Example 6.4
The two-dimensional flow of a nonviscous, incompressible fluid in the vicinity of the corner of Fig. E6.4a is described by the stream function 90

] ! 2r sin 2U
2
where has units of m2/s when r is in meters. (a) Determine, if possible, the corresponding velocity potential. (b) If the pressure at point (1) on the wall is 30 kPa, what is the pressure at point (2)? Assume the fluid density is 10 kg/m3 and the xy plane is horizontal that is, there is no difference in elevation between points (1)and (2).

Figure E 6.4

Solution
(a) The radial and tangential velocity components can be obtained from the stream function as

1 x] vr ! ! 4r cos 2U r xU
since

and

x] vU !  !  4r sin 2U xr
xJ ! 4r cos 2 U xr

xJ vr ! xr

it follows that

and therefore by integration

J ! 2r cos 2 U  f1 (U )
2
where

f1 (U )

is an arbitrary function of

. Similarly

1 xJ vU ! !  4r sin 2U r xU
and integration yields

(1)

J ! 2r cos 2 U  f 2 (r )
2

(2)

where

f 2 (r )
2

is an arbitrary function of r. To satisfy both Eqs. 1 and 2, the velocity potential must have the form

J ! 2r cos 2 U  C

(ans.)

where C is an arbitrary constant. As is the case for stream functions, the specific value of C is not important, and it is customary to let C = 0 so that the velocity potential for this corner flow is

J ! 2r cos 2 U
2

(ans.)

6.6.3 Stream Function And Velocity Potential For a two-dimensional, incompressible, irrotational flow we have expression for the velocity components, u and v, in terms of both the stream function , and the velocity potential, ,

Figure 6.19 Selection of path to show relation of velocity components to stream function.

x] xJ u! ! xy x x

x] xJ v! ! x x xy

(6.64)

and in plane polar coordinates (r, ) the velocity components, u and v, in terms of both the stream function, , and the velocity potential, ,

1 x] xJ Vr !  ! , r xU xr

1 xJ x] VU ! ! r xU xr

Example 6.5
Consider the flow field given by =ax2-ay2, where a=1 sec-1 a) Show that the flow is irrotational b) Determine the velocity potential for this flow Solution: If the flow is irrotational, then Wz=0 since

xV x U 2Wz !  xx xy

and

x] x] u! , v=xy xx

x x 2 2 and v !  then u ! ( ax  ay ) ! 2ay (ax 2  ay 2 ) ! 2ax xy xx

xv xu x x (2ax)  (2ay) ! 2a  2a ! 0 Thus 2 w z !  ! xx xy x x xy ^ ! 2w z ! 0

Therefore, the flow is irrotational. The velocity component can be written in terms of the velocity potential as

xJ u! xx

xJ v! xy

Consequently

xJ u! ! 2ay xx

Integrating with respect to x gives

J ! 2ayx  f ( y)
where f(y) is an arbitrary function of y.

Then

xJ x v ! 2ax ! ! (2axy  f ( y ) xy xy xf ( y ) xf  2ax ! 2ax  ! 2ax  xy xy

So

df !0 dy

and f is constant. Therefore

J ! 2axy  constant

We also can show that lines of constant

and

are orthogonal.

] ! ax 2  ay 2
For =constant

d] ! 0 ! 2axdx  2aydy

Hence

dy x ! dx ]!c y

xJ xJ dJ ! dx  dy ! udx  vdy xx xy

For

=constant,

dJ ! 0 ! 2aydx  2axdy

dy y 2aydx ! 2axdy ! dx J !c x
This problem illustrates the relation among the stream function, the velocity field and the velocity potential.

6.6.4 Circulation And Vorticity

The rotation about the z axis of a fluid particle was shown to be the following equation:

1 xv x u wz !  2 xx x y

This can be further extended to the more general concepts of circulation and vorticity all of which are interrelated. The general definition of circulation is

+ ! V cos Eds

(6.65)

This is the line integral of the component of velocity along a line element around a closed or complete control (11). The vorticity (xi) is defined as the circulation / units area, or more explicitly the vorticity at a point is

Lim
areap0

+ Area

It can easily be shown that =2

The value of circulation is the strength of the vortex.

Figure 6.20 circulation

For example, consider an infinitesimal rectangle of sides, dx, dy (see figure 6.20). Then, the circulation round the rectangular element is

xu xu x+ ! uxx  v  xxxy  u  xyxx  vxy xx xy

Taking positive in the anticlockwise sense

xv xu x+ !  xxxy xx xy

or

x+ ! :xxxy ! 2[xxxy

(6.66)

6.6.5 Elementary Plane-Flow Solutions

Several potential-flow problems of interest can be constructed from three types of elementary solutions: 1) Uniform stream 2) Source or sink 3) Vortex

6.7.1 Uniform Stream

The simplest flow pattern are those in which the streamlines are all straight lines parallel to each other. First let the streamline be in the x direction and solve for the resulting and functions

x = x* u ! ug ! ! ! Cons tan t xy xx

x= x* v!0! ! xx xy
integrating we obtain

(6.67)

=uy+C1

=ux+C2

(6.68)

Now the integration constant C1 and C2 have no effect whatever on velocities or pressure in the flow. Therefore we shall consistently ignore such irrelevant constants and for a uniform stream in the x direction (5)

=u y

=u x

These are plotted in figure 6.21 and consist of a rectangular mesh of straight stream-lines normal to straight potential lines.

Figure 6.21 Flow net for a uniform stream: (a) stream in the x direction; (b) stream at angle . In terms of plane polar coordinates (r, ) equation 6.69 becomes

uniform stream

=u rsin

= u rcos

(6.70)

The plot of course is exactly the same as figure 6.21a if we generalize to a uniform stream at an angle to the x axis, as in figure 6.21b, we require that

x= x* ! u ! ug cos E ! xy xx x= x* ! v ! vg sin E !  xy xx

(6.71a)

(6.71b)

= -v.x + u.y = -u .Sin x + u .Cos y = u.x + v.y = u .Cos x + u .Sin y

integrated we obtain for a uniform stream at angle ( )

= u .(y. Cos - x. Sin ) = u .(x. Cos + y. Sin )

(6.72a)

(6.72b)

These are useful in airfoil angle of attack problems.

Example 6.6
Obtain the flow field streamlines for a) u = 20 m/sec in the direction of +ve x values b) v = -10 m/sec in the direction of -ve y values c) A combined of (a) and (b)

Solution: a) v = 0 , u = 20 m/sec = - v. dx + u. dy = -v.x + u.y + c Boundary condition = +u.y taking the integration => = + u.y + c

since v = 0
0

= 0 when x =0 ; y = 0 . Hence c = 0 , then ;

Consider y = -0.2 m with u = 20 m/sec or y = -0.4 , -0.6, -0.8, -1 with u = 20 m/sec

1

= -u.y = (+20).(-0.2) = -4

Figure E 6.6 Straight line flow

b) u = 0 , v = -10 m/sec = -v.x + u.y + c

Taking the boundary conditions as 0 = 0 when x = 0 and y = 0 then c = 0

since u = 0 and c = 0 the equation will be as ; = -v.x Then

Taking the value of x as x = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1 with v = -10 m/sec

= -v.x = -0.2 . (-10) = 2 =>

=2 so on,

c) A combination a and b Here = -v.x + u.y = -(-10).x + 20.y

or this may evaluated by summing the separate fields of (a) and (b) as

a+

= -vx + uy

= -10.x + 20.y

= -(-10 . 0.2) + 20. 0.2 = -2 -(-10. 0.6) + 20.(-0.4) = -2

9' 1=

6.7.2 Line Source or Sink

A line normal to the xy plane, from which fluid is imagined to flow uniformly in all directions at right angles to it, is a source. It appears as a point in the customary two-dimensional flow diagram. The total flow per unit time per unit length of line is called the strength of the source (6). In steady flow the amount of fluid crossing any given cylindrical surface of radius r and length b is constant.

Q = Vr.(2
or

rb) = constant = 2

b.m

(6.73)

Vr,source = m/r
Where m is a convenient constant. This is called a LINE SOURCE if m is positive and a LINE SINK if m is negative. Obviously the source streamlines flow outward, as in fig.6.22.a and the tangential velocity V = 0. So, we can solve for the plane polar version of and .

Vr !

m 1 x x ! ! r r x xr

V !0!

1 x x ! xr r x

Integrating, we obtain a line source or sink

= m.

and

= m.Lnr

(6.74)

Figure 6.22 Flow net for a line source and line vortex a) Line source, b) Line vortex

The equivalent cartesian forms are

= m.tan-1(y/x)
6.7.3 Line Vortex Reversing the roles of

and

= m.Ln(x2 + y2)1/2

(6.75)

and

in equation 6.74 yields (6.76)

= -K.Lnr

and

= K.

By direct differentiation of either one we obtain the velocity pattern (see fig.6.22b)

Vr = 0 and

V =K/r

(6.77)

The vortex strength K has the same dimensions as the source strength m, namely, velocity times length (m/sec . m or v x L) 6.7.4 Circulation The line-vortex flow is irrotational everywhere except at the origin, where the vorticity
p p

xV

is infinite.

This means that a certain line integral called the fluid circulation does not vanish when taken around a vortex center.

Figure. 6.23 Definition of the fluid circulation

! v cos ds ! V .ds ! vdx  udy  dz

c c c

(6.78)

starting and ending at the same point will lead to have the circulation as

=0

(6.79)

path enclosing a vortex

=2

(6.80)

Alternatively the calculation can be made by defining a circular path of radius r around the vortex center, from equation 13.22

K ! V .ds ! rdJ ! 2 r c 0

(6.81)

Example 6.7 A liquid drains from a large tank through a small opening as illustrated in Fig. E6.7. A vortex forms whose velocity distribution away from the tank opening can be approximated as that of a free vortex having a velocity potential

+ J! U 2T
Determine an expression relating the surface shape to the strength of the vortex as specified by the circulation +

Figure E.67

Since the free vortex represents an irrotational flow field, the Bernoulli equation

P1 V P2 V   z1 !   z2 K 2g K 2g
can be written between any two points. If the points are selected at the free surface, P1 = P2 = 0 so that

2 1

2 2

V V ! zS  2g 2g

2 1

2 2

(1)

where the free surface elevation, is measured relative to a datum passing through point (1).

The velocity is given by the equation

1 xJ + vU ! ! r xU 2Tr
We note that far from the origin at point (1) so that Eq. 1 becomes

V1 ! vU } 0

+ zS !  2 2 8T r g

(ans)

Vortex in a Beaker Vortex A flow field in which the streamlines are concentric circles is called a vortex. A vortex is easily created using a magnetic stirrer. As the stir bar is rotated at the bottom of a beaker containing water, the fluid particles follow concentric circular paths. A relatively high tangential velocity is created near the center which decreases to zero at the beaker wall. This velocity distribution is similar to that of a free vortex, and the observed surface profile can be approximated using the Bernoulli equation which relates velocity, pressure, and elevation.