MOTIVATION: RELATED WITH JOB PERFORMANCE AND SATISFACTION

MOTIVATION
The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways. The goal of managers is to maximize desired behaviors and minimize undesirable behaviors. Motivation is some driving force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfill some need or expectation.

Four Common Characteristics of Motivation

Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon Motivation is described, usually, as intentional Motivation is multifaceted- arousal & choice of behavior The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behavior

Basic Motivational Model

NEEDS OR EXPECTATIONS
Result in

DRIVING FORCE (behavior or action)

To achieve

DESIRED GOALS

Feedback

FULFILMENT

Which provide

NEEDS & EXPECTATIONS AT WORK

Two types of classification

ECONOMIC REWARDS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION INTRINSIC SATISFACTION INTRINSIC MOTIVATION SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

EXTRINSIC & INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION is related to tangible rewards such as salary, fringe benefits, security, promotion, contract of service, work conditions etc. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION is related to psychological rewards such as the opportunity to use ones ability, a sense of challenge and achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition, and being treated in a caring and considerate manner.

THREE- FOLD CLASSIFICATION

ECONOMIC REWARDS- such as pay, fringe benefits, pension rights, security. Concerned with other things. INTRINSIC SATISFACTION- interest in the job, personal growth and development. Concerned with oneself. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS- such as friendships, group working, and the desire for affiliation and status. Concerned with other people.

Evolution of Motivation Theories

Content theories of motivation

Maslows hierarchy of needs theory Alderfers existence, relatedness and growth theory (ERG) McClellands acquired needs theory Herzbergs two-factor theory

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Individuals have innate needs or wants which they will seek to satisfy Physiological needs Safety needs Social needs Esteem needs Self-actualization needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

EVALUATION OF MASLOWS THEORY

Hierarchy displays the following properties: A need once satisfied is no longer a motivator A need cannot be effective as a motivator until those before it in the hierarchy have been satisfied If deprived of the source of satisfaction from a lower order need it will again become a motivator There is an innate desire to work up the hierarchy Self-actualization is not like the other needs

Alderfers ERG theory

Three-level hierarchy: Existence needs: concenred with sustaining human existence and survival, & cover physiological and safety needs of a material nature. Relatedness needs: concerned with relationships to the social environment, and cover love or belonging, affiliation, and meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety and esteem nature. Growth needs: concerned with the development of potential, and cover selfesteem and self actualization.

LINKING MASLOW, ALDERFER AND HERZBERG

MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Physiological Safety Love Esteem Self actualization Growth Relatedness Motivators ALDERFERS ERG THEORY Existence HERZBERGS TWOFACTOR THEORY Hygiene factors

Herzbergs two-factor theory

Motivators and hygiene factors Hygiene factors if absent cause dissatisfaction Salary Working conditions Job security Level and quality of supervision Company policies and administrative procedures Interpersonal relationships at work Motivators - motivate an individual to improve their work performance Recognition Sense of achievement Responsibility Nature of the work itself Growth Advancement

McClellands acquired needs theory

David McClellands has proposed the three- needs theory, which says there are three acquired needs (not innate) needs that are major motives in work.

McClellands acquired needs theory

Achievement (nAch)- the drive to excel

Affiliation (nAff)-the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

Power (nPow)- the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

How do you measure your levels of these needs?

All the three are typically measured using a projective test known as the Thematic Appreciation Test. In this test respondents react to a set of pictures. Each picture is briefly shown to a person who writes a story based on the picture.

Process theories
Vroom Porter and Lawler expectancy models Adams equity theory Lockes goal theory Kellys attribution theory

Expectancy theories of Motivation

Assumption: people are influenced by the expected results of their actions. Motivation is a function of:
Effort expended and perceived level of performance; & The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance. The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are available.

The Vrooms expectancy model (VIE Theory)

Vroom was the first person to propose an expectancy theory aimed specifically at work motivation. His model is based on three key variables: Valence Instrumentality Expectancy

Valence
feeling about specific outcomes is termed as valence. This is the attractiveness of, or preference for, a particular outcome to the individual. Valence is the anticipated satisfaction from an outcome.

Instrumentality
The valence of outcomes derives, from their instrumentality. First level outcomes are performance related Second level outcomes are need related

Expectancy
Relationship between a chosen course of action and its predicted outcome. Expectancy relates effort expended to the achievement of first level outcomes Its value ranges from 0, indicating zero probability that an action will be followed by an outcome, and 1, indicating certainty that an action will result in the outcomes.

PORTER & LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL

Extended Vrooms theory Identify the origin of peoples valences Link effort with performance and job satisfaction Identify factors other than effort that influence performance Emphasise the importance of equitable rewards

The Porter-Lawler theory of motivation

Abilities and traits

The Porter-Lawler theory of motivation

Value of reward-people desire various outcomes which they hope to achieve from work. Perceived effort- reward probability- refers to a persons expectations that certain outcomes are dependent upon a given amount of effort. Effort- the amount of energy a person exerts on a given activity. Abilities and Traits-effort does not directly lead to performance. It is influenced by factors such as intelligence, skills, knowledge, training etc.

The Porter-Lawler theory of motivation

Role perceptions: the way in which individuals view their work and the role they should adopt. Performance= EFFORT EXERTED + INDIVIDUALS ABILITIES & TRAITS + ROLE PERCEPTIONS Rewards- desirable outcomes. Perceived Equitable Rewards- level of rewards people feel they should fairly receive for a given standard of performance. Satisfaction- an individuals internal state. Determined by both actual rewards received, and perceived level of rewards from the organisation for a given standard of performance.

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY

People develop beliefs about what is a fair reward for ones job contribution People compare their exchanges with their employer to exchanges with others-insiders and outsiders called referents If an employee believes his treatment is inequitable, compared to others, he or she will be motivated to do something about it -- that is, seek justice.

Model of Equity Theory

Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people:

Outcomes (self) Inputs (self) =

Outcomes (other) Inputs (other)

Adams equity theory

LOCKES GOAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Intentions play a significant part in determining behavioural patterns Goals guide peoples responses and actions.

Characteristics of Goals
Goal difficulty Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. People work harder to achieve more difficult goals. Goals should be difficult but attainable.

LOCKES GOAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Characteristics of Goals (contd)

Goal specificity Clarity and precision of the goal. Goals vary in their ability to be
stated specifically.

Acceptance The extent to which persons

accept a goal as their own.

Commitment The extent to which an individual is

personally interested in reaching a goal.

Lockes goal theory

GOAL DIFFICULTY

VALUES

EMOTIONS & DESIRES

GOALS OR INTENTIONS

RESPONSES OR ACTIONS WORK BEHAVIOR & PERFORMANCE

CONSEQUENCE OR FEEDBACK

LEVEL OF COMMITMENT

Additional perspectives on motivation

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y Ouchis Theory Z

Maccobys social theory

McGregors Theory X & Y

Douglas McGregor identified two set of assumptions: Theory X involves negative assumptions about people that managers often use as the basis to deal with their subordinates E.g.the average person is lazy, has an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever he or she can). Theory Y represents positive assumptions about people that the manager should strive to use. E.g people will exercise self direction and selfcontrol in meeting their objectives.

Performance management and motivation

Performance management and motivation

Options available to managers

Pay levels and structures Incentive schemes Organizational factors Performance appraisal Management style Feedback, praise and punishment Management by example Company policies

Managers do not have the opportunity to adjust all the levers potentially available Availability Freedom of action Personal preference Variability Group norms