Sociology: Definition

It is the scientific study of social interaction and social organization (Hughes and Kroehler 2005:40).

Definition of Sociology Contd.

It is the systematic study of social behaviour and human groups (Schaefer 2004: 431). It focuses primarily on the influence of social relationships on peoples attitudes and behaviours and on how societies are established and changed. In essence, sociology deals with the study of society. What then is society?

Definition of Society.

According to the Longman Modern English Dictionary, society refers to any number of people associated together geographically, socially or otherwise with collective interest.

Definition of Society Contd.

According to R. M. Maciver & C. H. Page, Society: An Introductory Analysis (1962: 5) society is a system of usages and procedures, of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and liberties.

Features of Society

Human Relations Society includes all kinds of human relations. These relations may be organized or unorganized, direct or indirect, conscious or unconscious, cooperative or uncooperative. It is the entire web of social relationship. (Oyediran 2003: 26)

Features of Society Contd

Social Organisation A society is the largest and most distinct social organization of which we are a part; its patterns are usually the most stable because of its long history.

Mutual interaction Society like all social organizations is made up actors who interact with one another and who have developed patterns over time. Society therefore depends on both mutual interaction and common patterns. (Charon 1986: 157)

Features of Society Contd.

Essential Condition Living in society is an inescapable/inevitable feature of the very essence of human beings. We are born into society; live in society for all purposes to enable us satisfy our several biological, social and psychological needs; and shall die in society. According to Aristotle, those who cannot live in society must be either gods or beasts.

Features of Society Contd.

Instrument of control Society as an organization which guides and controls human behaviour, liberates and limits the activities of men and sets up standards for them to follow and maintain. (Maciver & Page 1962:5)

Supportive Instrument Aristotle said that man is a social animal; man is dependent on society for protection, comfort, nurture, education, equipment, opportunity, and the multitudes of definite services which society provides. (ibid: 9)

Features of Society Contd.

Existence of laws, customs, etc. Society has a common set of laws, customs, a heritage, a class structure and a host of institutions and its patterns makes us similar to each other and different from people in other societies.

Features of Society Contd.

Social Control Society as an organization which guides and controls human behaviour liberates and limits the activities of men and sets up standards for them to follow and maintain(Maciver & Page 1962:5)

Sociological Imagination

The ability to see our private experiences and personal difficulties as entwined with the structural arrangements of our society and the historical times in which we live (Hughes and Kroehler 2005: 41). Or An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society. (Schaefer 2004: 431)

Significance of Social Imagination Contd.

Broader understanding of issues: Social imagination helps us to understand and appreciate issues that are of concern to the public from a broader perspective. For example, divorce. Though divorce is an individual affair, its effect goes beyond the individual into the whole society. This therefore places it in the domain of social imagination.

Significance of Social Imagination Contd.

New understanding of daily life: As a mental social process, social imagination tends to afford people the opportunity to obtain new understanding of their daily lives. A case in point is the controversial ex-gratia regime.

Significance of Social Imagination Contd.

Tool of Empowerment: Like any other tool, social imagination serves as a useful aid for undertaking a critical view, examination and analysis of the world. For example, the terrorists attack of the US in 2001.

Is Sociology a Science?

The term science refers to the BODY OF KNOWLEDGE obtained by METHODS based on SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION (Schaefer 2004: 6).

Scientific Method

It basically refers to certain distinctive rules of procedure and mental framework within which work of any scientific nature may be carried out. It includes the steps through which such an exercise must pass, the rules of procedure, the mental and intellectual framework within which such a work should be carried out. It also includes the scientific spirit as well as the scientific habit of thinking and conceptualizing the empirical world (Kumekpor 199: 14).

Tenets of the Scientific Method

Conceptualization Observation Measurement/Quantification Classification/Categorization Reflection Identification and establishment of observed relationships Generalization

Major Steps Towards the Application of Scientific Method

Formulation and definition of the problem to be studied - including the objectives and theoretical framework (CONCEPTUALIZATION). Reference to the existing data on the chosen problem. Formulation of a working hypothesis. Observation: measurement and recording of facts related to the problem (OBSERVATION).

Major Steps Towards the Application of Scientific Method Contd.

Classification of recorded facts data processing, data analysis and interpretation (CLASSIFICATION/CATEGORIZATION). Establishment of relationships aimed at formulating generalizations (IDENTIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF OBSERVED RELATIONSHIPS). Presentation of results (including comparison with previous work in the field) Report writing. (GENERALIZATION).

Development of Sociology: Early Thinkers

AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857) Nineteenth century French philosopher. He is the founder of Sociology. Laying the theoretical foundation for Sociology, Comte believed that a theoretical science of study and systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve society. He coined the term SOCIOLOGY to apply to the science of human behavior.

Comte Contd.

Having stressed the need for Sociology to be scientific, Comte urged Sociologists to use systematic observation, experimentation, and comparative historical analysis as their methods. He divided the study of society into social statics and social dynamics. Social statics: Involve those aspects of social life that has to do with order, stability, and social organization that allow societies and groups to hold together and endure. Social dynamics: deal with those processes of social life that ensures institutional development and has to do with social change.

Early Thinkers: Martineau

HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-1876) She was an English Sociologist. She based her understanding of Sociology on social behavior. Martineau advocated for a separate scientific field for the study of society. Her works mainly centred on feminism and methodology. Besides, Martineaus writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and population could have on the social problems of contemporary society (Schaefer 2004: 10). In Martineaus view, intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social conditions; they should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society (Ibid).

Early Thinkers: Spencer

HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903 Likening society to the human body, Spencer, an English Sociologist, viewed society as a system made up of interrelated part. Such a system, according to him, are made up of organs that allow the whole system (including the interrelated parts) to function effectively. Among the organs he identified as important for the effective functioning and survival of society includes the family, religion, education, the state and the economy. According to him, such an image of the society is in line with what is now regarded as structural functionalism. Spencer was very much influenced by the works of Darwin. He applied the concept of survival of the fittest to the social world and developed what came to be known a SOCIAL DARWINISM.

Spencer Contd.

By his theory of Social Darwinism, Spencer stated that the ideas that people hold about themselves in the world is highly influenced by social age of the time. He viewed static social institutions notably, marriage, education and religion, among others, as the main organs of society. He warned governments not to interfere with natural processes of society adding that: if this principle was allowed to operate freely, human beings and their institutions would progressively adapt themselves to their environment and reach higher and higher level of historical development.

Early Thinkers: Marx

KARL MARX (1818-1883) Born in Germany but spent much of his adult life in London. Marx viewed science as a means through which society could be understood and transformed. He focused his attention on the economic environments that societies find themselves, particularly in the area of technology and mode/factors of production.

Marx Contd.

At Berlin University, Marx got influenced by the works of G.W.F. Hegel. Hegels work was based on the philosophy of change. According to Hegel, changes in society come about as a result of ideas (ideology). He viewed each period of history as constituting an ideology which does not only explain the existing social system, but also justifies it.

Marx Contd.

Hegel identified some forces which always become unhappy with the existing social system and then tend to oppose it. According to him, the opposing forces consist of two things: thesis and antithesis. As the thesis and antithesis merge, a new feature, synthesis, is produced. Following from the above, a new social system is then created based

Marx Contd.

on the ideas (ideologies) at the time. Afterwards a new thesis emerges and it is developed into antithesis which subsequently develops into synthesis. This process is what Hegel referred to as Dialectical Idealism (Bluwey 2002: 79-80 ). This, Marx adapted and substituted economic factors for ideas (Ibid). Marx viewed every society as divided into two classes: those who own the means of production (bourgeoisie) and those who do not (proletariat).

Marx Contd.

According to Marx, because the owning class exploits the working class, the relationship between the two classes is one of perpetual antagonism (Bluwey 2002: 80). He regarded the division of society as constituting the basis of class conflict in such society. He viewed the history of the world as composed of nothing but the struggle between classes.

Marx Contd.

Marx noted that in the contemporary Western societies, class antagonism was between the capitalist class/bourgeoisie (i.e. the oppressor) and the working class/proletariat (the oppressed). He viewed the relationship between the two classes as exploitative, saying the latter always had to derive its means of livelihood (income) through the exploitation of the labor of the latter via the means of production owned by the former.

Marx Contd.

In Marxs theory, political ideologies, religion, family organization, education and government make up what he called superstructure (Hughes and Kroehler 2005: 11). He argued that the working class needed to overthrow the existing class system in order to pursue more human goals.

Early Thinkers: Durkheim

EMILE DURKHEIM The French Sociologist focused his attention on the question of how societies hold together and endure. He slammed Marx for concentrating his studies on economic factors and class struggle as opposed social solidarity. He made social integration central to his studies.

Durkheim Contd.

By social integration, it deals with the number of relationships that exist among a collection of people. He viewed social interaction as necessary for the maintenance of the social order and also for the happiness of individuals. According to him, the destruction of social bonds has negative consequences on the society.

Durkheim Contd.

Among some of the negative social consequences included divorce and suicide, among others. Besides, Durkheim showed interest in the consequence of work in modern societies. In his view, the growing division of labor in industrial societies as workers became much more specialized in their tasks led to what he called anomie.

Durkheim Contd.

The state of anomie occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction, often during a time of profound social change (Schaefer 2004: 10). He showed concerned about the dangers that alienation, loneliness and isolation might posed for modern industrial societies. He shared Comtes belief that Sociology should provide direction for social change (Ibid).

Early Thinkers: Weber

MAX WEBER Born in 1864, the German scholar undertook studies in legal and economic history. Later on, Weber developed interest in Sociology and embarked on a number of studies in that area of academic discipline. Beside Sociology, Weber left a legacy of rich insights for a variety of disciplines, particularly in the area of Political Science and History.

Max Weber: Contd.

In the field of Sociology, Weber made a number of theoretical contributions. In addition to this, he also developed new ideas that generated considerable interest and research in the field of academia. Among some of the rich ideas Weber bequeathed to the academia include: bureaucracy, charisma and lifestyle, among others.

Max Weber: Contd.

In the area of Sociology, Weber stressed on the need for critical studies on human subjectivity, stating it would enable Sociologists to understand and appreciate the thinking and feeling of people (Hughes and Kroehler 2005: 13). In addition to the above, Weber came out with the concept of the ideal type. This is a tool used by Sociologists to portray the principal characteristics of something they want to study (Ibid).

Max Weber: Contd.

He placed emphasis on value-free Sociology. This refers to a kind of Sociological studies in which the researchers biases are suppressed to the minimum.

What is Culture?

It is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. It includes the ideas, values, customs, and artifacts of groups of people (Schaefer 2004: 51). Patriotic attachment to the flag of Ghana is also an aspect of culture.

CULTURE Contd.

Culture refers to the social heritage of a people those learned patterns for thinking, and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next, including the embodiment of these patterns in material items. It includes both nonmaterial culture like values, beliefs, symbols, norms and customs, among others, as well as physical artifacts or objects like stones axes, painting and hair styles (Hughes and Kroehler 2005: 43-44).

CULTURE Contd.

Society Society may be regarded as a relatively all encompassing human association in which an individual lives, thinks, feels and acts, and to which he or she owes emotional allegiance and loyalty. Or a relatively enduring, patterned, morally structured framework for interaction of people, usually within a specified locality. (Assimeng 2006: 6- 8).

CULTURE Contd.

Society is an organization which guides and controls the behaviour of people in various or myriad ways, liberates and limits the activities of men, sets up standards for them to follow and maintain standards. Society is a system of usages and procedures, of controls of human behaviour and liberties. It is a web of social relationships (McIver and Page 1967: 250).

CULTURE Contd. Components/Elements of Culture Culture has a number of component parts. They include: norms, values, symbols and language. Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by a society. It is a way of encouraging and enforcing what society views as appropriate behavior while discouraging and punishing what it considers to be improper behavior (Schaefer 2004:). Or they are social rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate behavior in given situations. They tell us what we should, ought and must do, as well as what we should not, ought not, and must not do (Hughes and Kroehler 2005: 45). In order for a norm to become significant, it must be widely shared and understood.

CULTURE Contd.

It must be noted that in all cultures, the great body of these social rules deal with matters involving sex, property, and safety, among others. Type of Norms There are two main types of norms: formal and informal. Formal Norms: They are those norms that have been written down and specify strict punishment for those who flout them.

CULTURE Contd.

In some countries, such norms are often formalized into laws and are enforced by the state. On the other hand, informal norms are those norms that are generally understood by members of the society but are not written down. An example include standard dressing code of a given people.

CULTURE Contd.

Classification of Norms Norms are classified into two main categories. These are mores and folkways. The categorization of norms into these two broad groups is determined by the relative importance of such norms to the society. In the situation where such norms are considered to be highly necessary to the welfare of the society, it is referred to as mores. Often because such norms embody the most cherished principle of the society, violation of such norms can lead to severe sanctions.

CULTURE Contd.

Folkways: These are norms which govern everyday behavior. Because of the informal nature of these norms, (that is the fact that they are not recorded/written down) the violations of these norms do not necessarily attract punishment or sanctions. For instance, child gives up his seat for an elderly person who is found standing in a bus. Having stated this, it is important to note that, the observance of folkways sometimes leads to male dominance.

CULTURE Contd.

Norms are not supposed to be violated. However, there are certain instances where norms are said to be violated. One of such instances include the situation where one norm conflicts with another. For example, the norm of minding your own business. Beside this, there are certain instances where the same action, under different circumstances, can cause one to be viewed as a hero or a villain. For example killing of human beings.

CULTURE Contd.

Sanctions: are the penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. In other words, sanctions can be negative or positive depending on the individuals attitude towards the social norm. While conformity to norms may lead to rewards, violation of norms on the other hand, may lead to punishment.

CULTURE Contd.

Language is an important aspect of communication. It includes: speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and gestures and expressions of nonverbal communication. It is the cornerstone of every culture. It is the main vehicle by which people communicate ideas, information, attitudes, and emotions to one another, and it is the principal means by which human beings create culture and transmit it from generation to generation.

CULTURE Contd.

Symbols Are ACTS or OBJECTS that have come to be socially accepted or represent something else. They represent other things through the understanding that people have in those symbols. Symbols are a powerful code or shorthand for representing and dealing with aspects of the world about us.

CULTURE Contd.

Forms of Symbols There are many forms of symbols. These include: gesture (dance), emblems (flags), pictures (traditional) and carvings (adinkra), among others. Though gestures are easily understood within a society of persons who share their meaning, they are often the basis for misunderstanding between cultures. Many of the everyday incidents of the ordinary features of our everyday lives have important symbolic content.

CULTURE Contd.

Symbols: Significance 1. Offer understanding of our everyday lives. 2. They explain important parts of our culture. 3. Messages associated with symbols serve as guide for human conduct. Symbols: Problems 1. Meanings can sometimes be confusing thereby creating all kinds of problems.

CULTURE Contd.

Values: are broad ideas regarding what is desirable, correct, and good that most members of a society share. Values are so general and abstract that they do not explicitly specify which behaviours are acceptable and which are not. Instead, values provide us with criteria and conceptions by which we evaluate worth, merit, beauty or morality.

CULTURE Contd.

Values indicate what people in a given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right. Values may be specific (honouring ones parents) or may be general (love). Values influence peoples behaviour and serves as criteria for evaluating the actions of others.

SOCIALIZATION DEFINED It is a process of social interaction by which people acquire the knowledge, attitudes, values, and behaviours essential for effective participation in society. In short, socialization is the process of becoming a social being, a process that continues throughout ones life (Hughes and Kroehler 2005: 70). Or It is a process of social interaction through which people acquire personality and learn the way of life of their society. It is the essential link between the individual and the society (Robertson 1987: ). Or Socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate for members of a particular culture (Schaefer 2004: 89).

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

There are two broad methods of socialization: direct and indirect. Direct Method: This refers to the various ways in which individuals consciously or intentionally learn or acquire the attitudes, values and behaviours appropriate for members of a particular culture. There are three such ways imitation, formal training and education and direct experience. Indirect Method: This is similar to the above method except that in the case of the latter method, the acquisition of attitudes, values and behaviours are done unintentionally.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Agents of Socialization The Family Socialization is achieved by many methods in various societies. It is achieved through interactions with family, neighbors, teachers and other public groups during the earliest years of ones existence. It is reinforced by peer values, media exposure, experience and public events as one grows older.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Our first socially-relevant learning occurs within the family. Most of this learning is informal, unintentional and often subconscious or unintentional. The family is a very powerful agent of socialization because an individuals formative years are spent there and what he learns there may have a permanent impact on him.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Because the family offers the individual his initial affection and social interaction, it influences his basic personality development and acquisition of socially relevant values. A childs basic orientation such as capacity for trust and cooperation is developed within the family. The family gives orientation to children. For example, there is a great intra-family correlation or link in party preference party attachment tends to starts from parent to child and persists to adult life.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Different family structures encourage different kinds of expectations about the rest of the world. Families that encourage child participation in family decisions seem to encourage these children to participate in social and political activities, among others when they become adults. For instance, children of politically active parents tend to be more politically active adults. This is probably because of the children copying their parents.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

On the other hand, children whose parents avoid the political involvement or hardly discuss political events have few parental examples and less encouragement to participate themselves. They therefore tend as adults to be less involved in politics. The attitude of a child to political leaders may be influenced by how his parents react/respond to them. .

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

The family unit therefore provides personal and emotional ties which tend to mould an individuals personality and affect his behaviour. The school The school influences socialization through its curriculum or syllabus, classroom rituals/rules and regulations, and values and attitudes of teachers unintentionally transmit to the students.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

The schools social environment and extracurricular activities also serve to introduce values like participation, competitiveness, achievement and observance of rules and regulations. Other socializing stimuli are the rituals observed in the school such as saluting the national flag, singing the national anthem, celebrating national historical events and displaying historical portraits or photos and events on classroom walls. All these ensure socialization.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Formal education is one of the most powerful agent of socialization. This is so because the school is a place where the most formal socialization takes place. At this place one is directly taught and trained to obey the rules of society. Not only are individuals taught in school to be good and patriotic citizens but also they are nursed or socialized for future leadership and educated about the political system Overall, the school trains the individual to become a useful adult.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Peer groups Peer groups refer to a group of people sharing similar status and having intimate ties. Examples are childrens playmates, small work groups, married couples and friends, among others. Peer groups are an important socialization agent because every individual, as a child or adult, belongs to a peer group.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

As an instrument of social learning, peer groups can influence the behaviours of its members. Particularly where family ties are weak, individuals may turn to their peer groups for guidance. Peer groups are also powerful because often members seek for approval, acceptance and friendship from the groups. In addition to this, individuals take the views held by the peer groups they belong.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Mass Media The usefulness of the mass media- radio, television, newspapers and magazines, among others, as socializing agents cannot be overemphasised as they provide models of behaviour. As an agent of socialization, the media educates, entertain and informs the people about values, beliefs, behaviours and attitudes in the society.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

They transmit information and messages as well as provide visual pictures of attitudes, behaviours, etc of society. The government also uses the mass media to communicate with the public. The mass media does not only teach the individual and the public the norms and values of the society, but also reinforce them. They also publicly publicize and promote ideas and thereby influence behaviours and attitudes of the individuals in the society.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

Work Place Another agent of socialization is the workplace. As individuals take up jobs, they tend to learn to behave appropriately within the occupation they find themselves. Among some of the things that are learnt in the work place includes the dos and donts (ethics) of the occupation, interpersonal relationships, etc.

SOCIALIZATION Contd.

There is no doubt that proper internalization of these things go a long way to influence the attitudes and behaviors of such workers.