Unit 2

Substructure design

Foundations

Introduction
In any building
the superstructure (structure) the substructure (foundations) the supporting soil

act together to give the building structural stability

Foundations
Foundations are the vital link between the superstructure and the ground. The criteria for a successful foundation are:
it should be at a minimum depth and size, without exceeding the allowable bearing capacity of any soil layer below the foundation. it should have settlement consistent with the supporting structure it should be able to withstand natural ground movements from frost, moisture and heat regard is given to buildability it should be economical

The principles of foundations

The basic function of a foundation is to intercept the load exerted by a building structure and transfer this load to the supporting soil in such a way that the building will not sink into the ground (subside)

Foundation Integrity
The structural integrity (stability) of the foundations is normally achieved in either of two ways, or a combination of both. Spread the load exerted by the building over a sufficiently wide area to prevent the supporting ground being overstressed

Divert or transfer the load to a strata, deep in the ground, which is capable of supporting the imposed load without failure

load on soil strata

When a building is placed on the ground it exerts a force on the soil. Safe foundations place that load such that the soil is not overloaded. The ability of the ground or soil to bear a load varies with types of soil and ground depth

Typical subsoil Bearing Capacities

SOIL AND GROUND CLASSIFICATION Rock ( 600 10000 KN/m2 )
Strong Sandstone Schists Strong shals 4000 3000 2000 > 600 200 600 < 200 > 300 < 100 300 600 150 300 75 150 < 75 To be determine by investigation

BEARING CAPACITY (KN/M2)

Granular Soils ( 100 600 KN/m2 )

Dense sand and gravel Medium dense gravel Loose sand and gravel Compact sand Loose sand

Cohesive soils ( 0 600 KN/m2 )

Stiff boulder clay Stiff clay Firm clay Soft clay and silt

Peats and made-up ground

Soil Borehole

What are the information to be obtained from a site investigation?

Essential information to be obtained from a site investigation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Instability: the landslips (collapse) of hills or slopes Vegetation: in shrinkable clay, a complete record of type, size and position of
tress should be noted.

8.
9.

Made ground: man made areas should be noted. Structures: Study the structures in the area (existing building) and record damages Soil and rock: the characteristics of the soils. Groundwater: The positions of springs, ponds and other water should be noted Mining and quarrying: Signs of mineral extraction in the area should be recorded. Solution features: the dissolve of soft soil such as chalk or limestone
may generate underground voids

Access: Ease of access for drilling rigs or hydraulic excavators which

might be needed for detailed ground investigation or construction work.

basic function of foundation

To achieve this basic function the foundation must be:

1. Strong enough to prevent downward vertical loads shearing through the foundation

2. Capable of withstanding the opposing forces, the weight of the building and the resistance of the soil, such that the foundation will not bend

3. Stable so that it will not overturn Wherever possible loads on foundations should be placed concentrically.

basic function of foundation

4. Capable of withstanding changing conditions in the ground if they occur, e.g. movement caused by shrinking and swelling, water pressure, etc.

5. Accommodate initial settlement of the structure. It is especially important that uneven settlement does not occur. 6. That the installation of foundations does not overstress the ground such that adjacent existing foundations and services are damaged. 7. Be constructed of materials that will not be degraded by chemicals found in the soil around the foundation. 8. Able to withstand the effect of frost

BUILDING NEAR TREES

in cohesive soils such as clay, this can cause significant volume changes resulting in ground movement. foundations should be designed to accommodate the movement or be taken to a depth where the likelihood of damaging movement is low.

Types of soil
1. Rock:
Igneous: The hardest rock is (e.g. granite and basalt). Metamorphic rocks (e.g. marbles ) Sedimentary rock ( limestone):
When the strata is inclined they may separate when stressed. In such situations ground anchors or retaining walls may be required

Types of soil
2. Course grained non-cohesive soils Gravels and sands come under this heading. When loaded they shear if unconfined. The particles slide over each other at an angle known as the angle of internal friction. considerable settlement can occur when the soil is initially loaded (installing services)

Types of soil
3.

Fine grained cohesive soils

These include clays and silts. changes with the level of moisture in the soil.
Shrink when dry , swells when the moisture increase vertical heave when freezes

4.

Organic soils
These include peat, loam and mud. Generally unsuitable for building on. Normally 150-200 mm thick.
Such soil (top soil) is usually removed before building begins.

5.

Made up soil

QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION IN CLASS

The loads exerted by the building vary according to the size, use and form of construction used. What loads are exerted by a building on to the ground below the building?

Answer: The building is exposed to both: 1- Permanent or dead loads: the weight of the structure, cladding and fixed equipment 2- Temporary or live loads : a- imposed loads: people, furniture, non-fixed equipment. environmental b- or dynamic loads: snow or wind c-. thermal loads: temperature changes causing load on structure

Main types of foundations

Near Surface Foundations - spread foundations
Strip Foundations Pad Foundations ( Isolated ) Continuous Column foundation Balanced Footings (Strap or cantilever) Rafts:
Plain Slabs Stiffened Edge Downstand Raft Upstand Raft Cellular Raft

Deep Foundations
Piled Foundations
Bored Piles Driven Piles

Strip Foundation
A. B. C. D. Conventional Strip foundation Wide strip foundation Deep strip foundation Stepped strip foundation

Balanced Footings (Strap or cantilever)

Which foundation to chose

The choice of appropriate type of foundation is depends on:
the magnitude of the load being exerted by the building, The form of that load, i.e. point load or equally distributed the bearing capacity of the soil.

SPREAD FOUNDATIONS
These foundations are normally associated with domestic buildings and have limited use in the complex buildings They are used to support continuous walls both load-bearing and non load-bearing. Generally they are used when the bearing capacity of the soil is good to average and the loads being exerted are not exceptionally high

1- Conventional strip foundation

An unreinforced strip of concrete placed under and designed to spread the load over sufficient area to prevent the soil being overstressed The width of the foundation is dictated by the load of the wall and the bearing capacity of the soil. The thickness of the foundation is related to the projection of the foundation from the face of the wall.

Concrete fails under compressive load usually by tensile shear failure along planes lying at 45. Thus the depth should not be less than the projection.

2- Wide strip foundation

When the load is high and/or the bearing capacity low , it is necessary to widen the foundation.

Used in marshy ground, soft clay silt and made-up ground

Wider strip would result in very deep foundations, or need a reinforcement

3- Deep strip foundations

Useful in shrinkable soils where the strip foundation is taken down to a depth where shrinking and expansion is less likely. Not requiring such a wide trench as bricklayers do not need working space

Deep Strip Foundation

Freehand sketch

3- pad foundation
Isolated column foundations is an independent square or rectangular concrete slab with a pier or column bearing in the centre of it (point load) usually square in plan and constructed of mass reinforced concrete The main difference is the way the column is attached to the foundation Usually this is used to support framed structures on uniform, firm and stable soils

Isolated foundation ( Pad )

Pad foundation

Continuous Column Foundation

RAFT or MAT FOUNDATIONS

These consist of a continuous reinforced concrete slab under a whole building mainly used with small to medium weight building built on soil of poor bearing capacity. At higher loads on the raft, then the raft is either thickened or extra reinforcing added services must be carefully designed and installed before raft is completed.

Raft Foundation

Raft (Mat) Foundation

Plain Slabs Stiffened Edge Downstand Raft Upstand Raft Cellular Raft

Cellular Raft

Downstand and Upstand Raft

Deep Foundation

Pile Foundations

 The main types of materials used for piles are:

steel concrete timber

Piles made from these materials are:

driven drilled jacked

The type is Depending upon:

type of soil pile material the load Site location (adjacent building, overhead space, etc.)

Pile foundations have been used as load carrying and load transferring systems for many years

Foundation system
Construction methods depend on the geology of the site Rotary boring techniques offer larger diameter piles than any other piling method permit pile construction through particularly dense or hard strata

TYPES OF PILE
Concrete Piles
- Cast In Place Concrete Piles - Precast Concrete Piles
- Drilled Shafts

Steel Piles
- H Piles - Cylindrical - Tapered

Timber Piles Composite Piles

Common Driven Pile Types

COMPOSITE PILES

TYPES OF PILE

Construction:
DISPLACEMENT PILES (driven) NONDISPLACEMENT PILES (drilled)

Working (Acting)
Friction
End Bearing

DISPLACEMENT PILES
If a pile is forced into the ground, the soil is displaced downwards and sideways, but material is not actually removed.
Piles inserted in this way are called displacement piles

ADVANTAGES
Material forming pile can be inspected for quality and Soundness before driving. Not liable to squeezing or necking. Construction operation not affected by ground water. Projection above ground level advantageous to marine structures. Can be driven in the very long lengths.

DISADVANTAGES
noise and vibration due to driving may be unacceptable. Produce a pressure waves in adjacent subsoil
this may effect the adjacent buried services

May break during driving, necessitation replacement pile. May suffer unseen damage, which reduces carrying capacity. Cannot be driven in condition of low headroom.

NON-DISPLACEMENT PILES
Sometimes a shaft (or hole) is excavated and the soil is replaced with concrete to form a pile.

This type of pile is called a replacement pile, or a non-displacement pile. Bentonite slurry may use to support the side of excavation

ADVANTAGES
Quieter to install Cause no stress waves on the soil Material forming pile is not governed by handling or driving stresses. Can be installed in very long lengths. No ground heave. Can be installed in conditions of low headroom.

DISADVANTAGES
Expensive Special techniques needed for concreting in water-bearing soils. Concrete cannot be inspected after installation. Enlarge bases cannot be formed in cohesion less soils. Cannot be extended above ground level without special adoption.

Pile Cup

Caissons
Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson. Caissons are usually used in construction of bridge piers and other structure where the foundation is under water.

Question

What is the best foundation ?

Deep Pile foundation