Introduction to

Genetic
Algorithms
Harihar kalia
Road Map
Basic Idea
Quick Review
Classes of Search Techniques
Simple GA
State of The Art

Road Map
Basic Idea
Quick Review
Classes of Search Techniques
Simple GA
State of The Art

Basic Idea

Suppose you have a problem
You dont know how to solve it
What can you do?
Can you use a computer to somehow
find a solution for you?
This would be nice! Can it be done?


Basic Idea
A dumb solution
A blind generate and test algorithm:

Repeat
Generate a random possible solution
Test the solution and see how good it
is
Until solution is good enough

Basic Idea
Can we used this dumb idea?
Sometimes - yes:
if there are only a few possible solutions
and you have enough time
then such a method could be used
For most problems - no:
many possible solutions
with no time to try them all
so this method can not be used


Basic Idea
Dumb Idea but it was works.
l
h
Basic Idea
A less-dumb idea (GA)
Generate a set of random solutions
Repeat
Test each solution in the set (rank them)
Remove some bad solutions from set
Duplicate some good solutions
make small changes to some of them
Until best solution is good enough



Basic Idea

Obviously this depends on the problem!
GAs often encode solutions as fixed
length bitstrings (e.g. 101110, 111111,
000101)
Each bit represents some aspect of the
proposed solution to the problem
For GAs to work, we need to be able to
test any string and get a score
indicating how good that solution is

How do you encode a solution?
Basic Idea

Imagine you had to drill for oil somewhere
along a single 1km desert road
Problem: choose the best place on the
road that produces the most oil per day
We could represent each solution as a
position on the road
Say, a whole number between [0..1000]

Silly Example - Drilling for Oil
Basic Idea
Where to drill for oil?
0
500 1000
Road
Solution2 = 900 Solution1 = 300
Basic Idea


The set of all possible solutions
[0..1000] is called the search space or
state space
In this case its just one number but it
could be many numbers or symbols
Often GAs code numbers in binary
producing a bitstring representing a
solution
In our example we choose 10 bits which
is enough to represent 0..1000
Digging for Oil
Basic Idea
Convert to binary string
512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
900 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
300 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1023 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In GAs these encoded strings are sometimes called
genotypes or chromosomes and the individual bits are
sometimes called genes
Basic Idea
Drilling for Oil
0
1000
Road
Solution2 = 900
(1110000100)
Solution1 = 300
(0100101100)
O

I

L

Location
30
5
Basic Idea


We have seen how to:
represent possible solutions as a
number
encoded a number into a binary string
generate a score for each number given
a function of how good each solution
is - this is often called a fitness function

Basic Idea
Back to the (GA) Algorithm
Generate a set of random solutions
Repeat
Test each solution in the set (rank
them)
Remove some bad solutions from set
Duplicate some good solutions
make small changes to some of them
Until best solution is good enough
Basic Idea
Various method inspired by Darwinian evolution
are used to update the set or population of
solutions (or chromosomes)
Two high scoring parent bit strings or
chromosomes are selected and combined
Producing two new offspring (bit strings)
Each offspring may then be changed randomly
(mutation)

Replication and Mutation
Basic Idea
Many schemes are possible so long as better
scoring chromosomes more likely selected
Score is often termed the fitness
Roulette Wheel selection can be used:
Add up the fitness's of all chromosomes
Generate a random number R in that range
Select the first chromosome in the population
that - when all previous fitnesss are added -
gives you at least the value R
Selecting Parents
Road Map
Basic Idea
Quick Review
Classes of Search Techniques
Simple GA
State of The Art

Quick Review
A class of probabilistic optimization algorithms
Inspired by the biological evolution process
Uses concepts of Natural Selection and Genetic
Inheritance (Darwin 1859)
Originally developed by John Holland (1975)
Particularly well suited for hard problems where
little is known about the underlying search space
Widely-used in business, science and engineering
Quick Review
Typically applied to:
discrete optimization
Attributed features:
not too fast
good heuristic for combinatorial problems
Special Features:
Traditionally emphasizes combining
information from good parents (crossover)
many variants, e.g., reproduction models,
operators

Quick Review
Hollands original GA is now known
as the simple genetic algorithm
(SGA)
Other GAs use different:
Representations
Mutations
Crossovers
Selection mechanisms
Road Map
Basic Idea
Quick Review
Classes of Search Techniques
Simple GA
State of The Art

Classes of Search
Techniques
Search Techniqes
Calculus Base
Techniqes
Guided random search
techniqes
Enumerative
Techniqes
BFS DFS
Dynamic
Programming
Tabu Search Hill
Climbing
Simulated
Anealing
Evolutionary
Algorithms
Genetic
Programming
Genetic
Algorithms
Fibonacci
Sort
References
C. Darwin. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection; or, the Preservation of flavored Races in the
Struggle for Life. John Murray, London, 1859.
W. D. Hillis. Co-Evolving Parasites Improve Simulated
Evolution as an Optimization Procedure. Artificial Life 2,
vol 10, Addison-Wesley, 1991.
J. H. Holland. Adaptation in Natural and Artificial
Systems. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 1975.
Z. Michalewicz. Genetic Algorithms + Data Structures =
Evolution Programs. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, third
edition, 1996.
M. Sipper. Machine Nature: The Coming Age of Bio-
Inspired Computing. McGraw-Hill, New-York, first
edition, 2002.
D. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization
and Machine Learning, Addison Wesley, 1989
Road Map
Basic Idea
Quick Review
Classes of Search Techniques
Simple GA
State of The Art

Simple GA
produce an initial population of individuals
evaluate the fitness of all individuals
while termination condition not met do
select fitter individuals for reproduction
recombine between individuals
mutate individuals
evaluate the fitness of the modified individuals
generate a new population
End while
Flow Chart of GA
MUTATION
START
INITIALIZE POPULATION
FITNESS CALCUALTION OF
INDIVIDUALS IN POPULATION
SELECTION
CROSSOVER
REPLACEMENT
IS
TERMINATION
CRITERIA
YES
NO
RETURN BEST INDIVIDUAL
STOP
Simple Example
(Goldberg98)
Simple problem: max x
2
over {0,1,,31}
GA approach:
Representation: binary code, e.g. 01101
13
Population size: 4
1-point xover, bitwise mutation
Roulette wheel selection
Random initialization
We show one generational cycle done by hand
Selection
Roulette-Wheel Selection: In a search space of N chromosomes, we
spin the roulette wheel N times.

. Tournament Selection: Runs a "tournament" among a few individuals
chosen at random from the population and selects the winner (the one with the best fitness) for
crossover
. Elitist Selection
. Rank Selection
. Hierarchical Selection

Selection
Prob
i
= f(i) /
i
f(i)

Expected count = N * Prob
i

Crossover
Mutation
Simple GA
Has been subject of many (early) studies
still often used as benchmark for novel GAs
Shows many shortcomings, e.g.
Representation is too restrictive
Mutation & crossovers only applicable for bit-
string & integer representations
Selection mechanism sensitive for converging
populations with close fitness values

Road Map
Basic Idea
Quick Review
Classes of Search Techniques
Simple GA
State of The Art

State of The Art
Crossover: Alternative Operators
Crossover vs Mutation
Other Representation: Gray
coding, integer, floating point
Binary Representation: Required
Precision Set
Crossover
Alternative Operators
Performance with 1 Point Crossover
depends on the order that variables occur
in the representation
more likely to keep together genes that are
near each other
Can never keep together genes from opposite
ends of string
This is known as Positional Bias
Can be exploited if we know about the
structure of our problem, but this is not
usually the case

Crossover
Alternative Operators
Choose n random crossover points
Split along those points
Glue parts, alternating between parents
Generalisation of 1 point (still some positional
bias)

N-point crossover
Crossover
Alternative Operators
Assign 'heads' to one parent, 'tails' to the other
Flip a coin for each gene of the first child
Make an inverse copy of the gene for the second
child
Inheritance is independent of position

Uniform crossover
Crossover vs Mutation
Decade long debate: which one is better /
necessary / main-background

Answer (at least, rather wide agreement):
it depends on the problem, but
in general, it is good to have both
both have another role
mutation-only-EA is possible, xover-only-EA
would not work

Crossover vs Mutation
Exploration: Discovering promising areas in the search space,
i.e. gaining information on the problem
Exploitation: Optimising within a promising area, i.e. using
information
There is co-operation AND competition between them
Crossover is explorative, it makes a big jump to an area
somewhere in between two (parent) areas
Mutation is exploitative, it creates random small
diversions, thereby staying near (in the area of ) the parent

Crossover vs Mutation
Only crossover can combine information from two
parents
Only mutation can introduce new information
(alleles)
To hit the optimum you often need a lucky
mutation

Other Representation
Gray coding of integers (still binary
chromosomes)
Gray coding is a mapping that means that
small changes in the genotype cause small
changes in the phenotype (unlike binary
coding). Smoother genotype-phenotype
mapping makes life easier for the GA
Nowadays it is generally accepted that it is
better to encode numerical variables
directly as:
Integers
Floating point variables
Integer Representation
Some problems naturally have integer variables,
e.g. image processing parameters
Others take categorical values from a fixed set
e.g. {blue, green, yellow, pink}
N-point / uniform crossover operators work
Extend bit-flipping mutation to make
creep i.e. more likely to move to similar
value
Random choice (esp. categorical variables)
For ordinal problems, it is hard to know correct
range for creep, so often use two mutation
operators in tandem
Floating Point
Representation
Many problems occur as real valued problems,
e.g. continuous parameter optimisation f : 9
n

9
Illustration: Ackleys function (often used in EC)


Binary Representation
For example, search space x [-1..2],
with six places after decimal point
Therefore 3x1000000 equal size ranges
This means that 22 bit are required since:
2097152=2
21
<3000000<2
22
=4194304
e
Binary Representation
Mapping from binary string <b
21
b
20
b
0
> into a real number x
from range [-1..2]:
convert the binary string <b
21
b
20
b
0
> from the base 2 to
base 10:


find a corresponding real number x:


( ) ( ) ' 2 ...
10
21
0 2
0 20 21
x b b b b
i
i
i
= =

=
1 2
3
'. 0 . 1
22

+ = x x