Course: Research Methods

Mar-Apr 2012

Part One: Foundations 1: Why Do Research? 2: What are the major types of Research? 3: Theory and Research Part Two: Planning and Preparation 4: Strategies of Research Design 5: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement 6: Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling Part Three: Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis 7: Experimental Research 8: Survey Research 9: Nonreactive Research and Secondary Analysis 10: Analysis of Quantitative Data Part Four: Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis 11: Field Research and Focus Group Research 12: Historical-Comparative Research 13: Analysis of Qualitative Data Part Five: Communicating with Others
14: Writing the Research Report and Politics of Research

I. Why Do Research?

Research?
About acquiring knowledge If not research, then:
Personal experience and common sense
Seeing is believing

Knowledge from experts and authorities

Position of Authority Experts are over-rated (The Wisdom of Crowds, James Surowiecki, Abacus, 2004)

5 errors
Overgeneralization Selective observation Premature closure Halo effect False consensus

Research?
About acquiring knowledge If not research, then:
Knowledge based on popular and media messages
Follow the nerd What most other people think

Knowledge subordinated to ideological beliefs and values

Reject ideas based on held beliefs

RESEARCH?

Gathering the information you need to answer a question and thereby help you solve a problem

Steps in the Research Process..Quant.

1. Select Topic 7. Inform Others 2. Focus Question

6. Interpret Data
5. Analyze Data

Theory
3. Design Study

4. Collect Data

Steps in the Research Process..Qual.

1. Select Topic 7. Inform Others
2. Adopt Perspective

6. Interpret Data
5. Analyze Data

Theory
3. Design Study

4. Collect Data

II. What are Major Types of Research?

Dimensions and Major Types of Research

1. Use and Audience of Research 2. Purpose of Research 3. Within or Across Cases 4. Single or Multiple Points in Time 5. Data Collection Techniques

II.1 Use and Audience of Research

Basic Research:
Research designed to advance fundamental knowledge about how the world works and build/test theoretical explanations by focusing on the why questions. The scientific community is its primary audience.

Applied Research:
Research designed to offer practical solutions to a concrete problem or address the immediate and specific needs of practitioners.

Basic and Applied Research

ASPECT Primary Audiences Evaluators Autonomy of Research BASIC Scientific Community (Other researchers) Research Peers High APPLIED Practitioners, participants or supervisors Practitioners, Supervisors Low-Moderate

Research Rigor
Highest Priority Purpose Success indicated by

Very High
Verified Truth Create new knowledge Publication and impact on knowledge/scientists

Varies, Moderate
Relevance Resolve a practical problem Direct application to address a specific concern/problem

Types of Applied Research

Evaluation Research:
Applied research in which one tries to determine how well a program or policy is working or reaching its goals or objectives.

Action Research:
Applied research in which the primary goal is to facilitate social change or bring about a value-oriented goal (political, social or business). Participatory Action Research: where participants actively help design and conduct the research study

Social Impact Assessment:

Applied research that documents the likely consequences for various areas for social life if a major new change is introduced into a community.

Take-Home Exercise
Examples for each type of applied research

Tools for Applied Research

Needs Assessment
An applied research tool that gathers descriptive information about a need, issue or concern including its magnitude, scope and severity

Cost Benefit Analysis

An applied research tool economists developed in which a monetary value is assigned to the inputs and the outcomes of a process and then the researcher examines the balance between them.

Take-Home Exercise
Challenges in needs assessment stage

II.2 Purpose of Research

 Exploratory
Become familiar with the basic facts, setting and concerns Create a general mental picture of conditions Formulate and focus questions for future research Generate new ideas, conjectures or hypotheses Determine the feasibility of conducting research Developing techniques for measuring and locating future data

 Descriptive
Provide a detailed, highly accurate picture Locate new data that contradict past data Create a set of categories or classify types Clarify a sequence of steps or stages Document a causal process or mechanism Report on the background or context of a situation

 Explanatory
Test a theorys predictions or principle Elaborate and enrich a theorys explanation Extend a theory to new issues or topics Support or refute an explanation or prediction Link issues or topics to a general principle Determine which of several explanations is best

II.3 Within or Across Cases

Case Study Research

Research that is an in-depth examination of an extensive amount of information about very few units or cases for one period or across multiple periods of time

Strengths of Case Study Research

Conceptual validity Heuristic impact Causal mechanisms identification Ability to capture complexity and trace processes Calibration Holistic elaboration

II.4 Single or Multiple Points in Time

Cross sectional Research

Any research that examines information on many cases at one point in time

Longitudinal Research
Any research that examines information from many units or cases across more than one point in time Time Series Research
Longitudinal research in which information can be about different cases or people in each of several time periods

Panel Study
Longitudinal research in which information is about the identical cases or people in each of several time periods

Cohort Study
Longitudinal research that traces information about a category of cases or people who shared a common experience at one time period across subsequent time periods

Cross Sectional: Observe a collection of people at one time.

March 2012

Time Series: Observe different people at multiple times.

March 2010

March 2011

March 2012

Panel: Observe the exact same people at two or more times.

March 2010

March 2011

March 2012

Cohort: Observe people who shared an experience at two or more times

March 2008

March 2009

March 2010

Case Study: Observe a small set intensely across time.

2006

2012

II.5 Data Collection Techniques

Quantitative: Collecting data in the form of numbers

Qualitative: Collecting data in the form of words or pictures

Quantitative
Experiments
Research in which the researcher manipulates conditions for some research participants but not others and then compares group responses to see whether doing so made a difference

Surveys
Research in which the researcher systematically asks a large number of people the same questions and then records their answers

Quantitative
Nonreactive Research
Research in which people are not aware of being studied

Content Analysis
Research in which the content of a communication medium is systematically recorded and analyzed

Existing Statistics Research

Qualitative
Field Research
Qualitative research in which the researcher directly observes and records notes on people in a natural setting for an extended period of time

Historical-Comparative Research
Qualitative research in which the researcher examines data on events and conditions in the historical past and/or in different societies

III. Theory and Research

What is Theory?
Logically selected set of general propositions that establishes a connection between two or more variables Explanation of a specific social phenomenon that identifies a set of casually relevant factors or conditions Provides insights into the real meaning of a social phenomenon by offering an illuminating interpretation and by telling us what it is all about

Gabriel, Abend, The Meaning of Theory, Sociological Theory Vol. 26 No. 2, May 28, 2008 , Pages 173-199

What is Theory?
Is what a famous social theory really think Is an entire worldview, or a way of seeing, interpreting and understanding events in the world

Is a criticism based on a political-moral viewpoint; it presents and stands for a set of beliefs-values from which it critiques the position and argument of opponents Is a philosophical commentary on key questions or issues about core issues of how we develop knowledge about the social world (e.g. how we really construct a sense of social reality)
Gabriel, Abend, The Meaning of Theory, Sociological Theory Vol. 26 No. 2, May 28, 2008 , Pages 173-199

Theory vs Ideology
BASIS OF DIFFERENCE IDEOLOGY
Absolute, certain answers with few questions

THEORY
Tentative, conditional answers that are incomplete and open ended Open, expanding belief system

Certainty of Answers
Closed, fixed belief system

Type of Knowledge Type of Assumptions Use of Normative Statements Empirical Evidence Logical Consistency
Avoidance of transparency Implicit assumptions based on faith, moral belief or social position Merger of descriptive claims, explanations and normative statements Selective use of evidence, avoidance of direct tests of claims, resistance, denial, or ignorance of contrary evidence Contradictions and logical fallacies Explicit, changing assumptions based on open, informed debate and rational discussion Separation of descriptive claims, explanations and normative statements Consideration of all evidence, seeking repeated tests of claims, changing, based on new evidence Highest levels of consistency and congruity, avoiding logical fallacies Encouragement of transparency

Transparency

Theory and empiricism

THEORY Open ended, verifiable, open for debate and rational discussion, consideration of evidence

Depends on Direction of Theorizing

EMPIRICISM / DATA

Refers to evidence or observations, data are forms of empirical evidence

Epistemology: The manner in which knowledge is collected

Concept

Proposition

Hypotheses

5 Aspects of theory
Direction of theorizing
Deductive or inductive

Level of analysis
Micro, Macro or Meso

Form of explanation
Causal, Structural or Interpretive

Range of theory
Empirical generalization Middle-range theory Framework

Deductive and inductive

Theoretical Framework Formal Theory Middle range theory Theoretical Framework Formal Theory

Middle range theory

Substantive Theory Hypothesis, Empirical Generalization

Empirical Social Reality

Substantive Theory

Concept Formation, Empirical Generalization

Empirical Social Reality

Substantive and formal

Substantive theory
A type of theory that is specifically tailored to a particular topic area
Social networking websites, such as Facebook, help people re-connect with old friends

Formal theory
A type of theory that is general and applies across many specific topic areas
Internet is a democratic form