Fracture

Why learn fracture?

It is important to understand the mechanisms for failure to

prevent in-service failures This can be accomplished via Materials selection, Processing (strengthening), Design Safety (combination).

Failure Fracture Fatigue Creep

Failure Process: Crack Initiation & Propagation

Initiation

Propagation

Cup-cone fracture in Al

Brittle fracture: mild Steel

Macroscopic Fracture Modes

Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip

A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting the crack.

Deformed region

brittle

plastic Energy balance on the crack

Elastic strain energy

energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed this energy is released when the crack propagates creation of new surfaces requires energy
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 Evolution to failure:

Ductile Fracture
Coalescence of cavities Crack propagation fracture

necking

void nucleation

Resulting fracture surfaces

50 mm 50 mm

(steel)
100 mm particles serve as void nucleation sites.
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 347-56.) Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with permission.

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Brittle Fracture
Occurs by breaking of atomic bonds in a grain successively called cleavage This type is known as transgranular fracture Sometimes it crack propagation will be at grain boundaries It is called intergranular fracture

I.

II.

Transgranular Fracture Intergranular Fracture

Fracture Mechanics
A discipline which studies failures in materials in the presence of a

crack

How to determine when a material will fail? Considering Stress

Flaw size
Geometry

Griffith theory of brittle fracture

Crack propagation occurs when the released elastic strain energy is at least equal to the energy

required to generate new crack surface.

Griffith theory of brittle fracture (Energy Balance Approach)

Elastic strain energy release (from applied load)

Supplies energy to
Generate new surface

Modified Eq. for materials with plastic deformation

Fracture Toughness (Stress Intensity Approach)

is an indication of the amount of stress required to propagate a preexisting flaw A parameter called stress-intensity factor (K) is used to determine the fracture toughness

KIC is a Material
Property

Ductile to Brittle Transition

Atomic Processes during Creep

Dislocation Climb Diffusion of vacancies GB Sliding

Effect of various alloying elements

Dislocation movement (Lattice Distortions) Polymorphic transformation temperature Strengthening of ferrite (SS Strengthening) Formation of Carbides Displacement of Eutectoid point (equivalent C) Delaying Austenite transformation Lowering Critical cooling rate Corrosion resistance (Cr, Al)

Graphitiser Vs Carbide former

Austenite stabiliser Vs Ferrite stabiliser

Ni, Pt, Cu, Mn

Cr, W, V, Nb, Mo, Ti, Si

Mild carbide former

Strong Graphitiser

Aluminum
Aluminium is a silvery white metal obtained by the electrolysis of alumina. The outstanding properties of aluminium are

lightness (density one-third of iron),

good electrical and thermal conductivity. has good corrosion resistance. ductility is also superior.

Designations
Major Alloying Element
None (99%+ Aluminium) Copper Manganese Silicon

Wrought
1XXX 2XXX 3XXX 4XXX

Cast
1xx.x 2xx.x 3xx.x 4xx.x 5xx.x

Magnesium
Magnesium + Silicon Zinc Lithium Unused

5XXX
6XXX 7XXX 8XXX

6xx.x
7xx.x 8xx.x 9xx.x

Ceramics

Composites

Nano materials

Smart materials

Nuclear Materials

Surface Treatments
To impart better surface properties Wear resistance Corrosion Methods Case Hardening

Selective Hardening
Layer Additions

Case hardening
Case hardening seeks to give a

hard outer skin over a softer

core on the metal.

Methods Carburising

Nitriding
Cyaniding Carbonitriding

Carburising
The addition of carbon to the outer skin is known as carburising.

Induction hardening
Induced eddy currents heat the surface of the steel very quickly and is quickly followed by jets of water to quench the component. A hard outer layer is created with a soft core. The slideways on a lathe are induction hardened.

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Flame hardening
Gas flames raise the temperature of the outer surface above the upper critical temp. The core will heat by conduction. Water jets quench the component.

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Age hardening
Hardening over a period of time Also known as precipitation hardening Occurs in duraluminium which is an aluminium alloy that contains 4% copper. This makes this alloy very useful as it is light yet reasonably hard and strong, it is used in the space industry. The metal is heated and soaked (solution treatment) then cooled and left.