OUTFALL DESIGN

When stormwater is discharged into the ocean through a pipe system, it will interact with the ambient water dynamically. If it carries certain substances (e.g. silt, pollutants) then the dilution induced should be sufficient such that the discharge will not affect the environment. The near field (also called active dispersal region or initial mixing region) is defined as the region close to the discharge and dynamically affected by the discharge. The momentum and the buoyancy of the discharge generate the velocity and turbulence field.

Jets and Plumes

A jet is a pure source of momentum A plume is a pure source of buoyancy. When a source has both initial momentum and buoyancy, it is said to be a buoyant jet. The actual discharge structure can often be simple, essentially the open end of a submerged pipe. in other cases much thought and expense must be given to designing a structure to achieve much higher initial dilution in order to minimize the immediate effect of the discharge on the environment, one common type of discharge is the submerged multi-port diffuser with multiple outlets.

Dilution

An important engineering parameter for near field mixing is the dilution. The dilution at a point is defined as the ratio of the discharge concentration (or concentration excess above the ambient) to the concentration at that point. This is a measure of the mixing capacity of the outfall.

TURBULENT JET

A jet is the discharge of fluid from an orifice (three dimensional) or a slot (two dimensional) into a large body of the same or similar fluid. In jet flows, the velocity profiles are selfsimilar far from the source. For purposes of engineering applications in water quality control, it usually suffices to assume a priori certain shapes of the velocity and concentration distribution and use an integral method to derive analytically the approximate characteristics of the mean flow and concentration to within an experimental constant.

0.25 z=14.815d 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 z=18.519d z=22.22d Int z=14.815d Int z=18.519d Int z=22.22d

Two Dimensional Jet

U0,C0

1. The static pressure is approximately constant across the jet and can be assumed to be equal to the outside pressure p = p 2. Near the discharge, for x 5.2B, there exists a zone of flow establishment (ZFE) where the turbulent diffusion has not penetrated into the potential core. Within this region, the axial velocity and concentration profiles are found to be u(x,y)=u0 y b'; u(x,y)=u0 exp[-(y-b)2/b2] y>b' C(x,y)=C0 y b'; C(x,y)=C0 exp[-(y-b)2/(b)2] y>b' where b'=width of potential core, b=diffusion thickness, =ratio of concentration to velocity width=constant.

3. In the zone of established flow (ZEF) x>5.2B, when the turbulence has penetrated into the core, the velocity and concentration profiles are similar (this means the profiles at different x all look similar in shape, so that if the profiles at different x are scaled properly, all these should collapse onto one curve), and can be expressed by Gaussian error functions

u(x, y) = u c (x) e-(y/b)

C(x, y) = Cc (x) e-(y/b)

where uc , Cc are centerline values. Thus, a nominal measure of the 'width' of the jet would be b, the point where the x velocity is 1/e the centerline value. Very often b0.1 (u/uc =0.1), b0.02 (u/uc =0.02) are also taken as measures of jet width.

4. The lateral scale of the jet is small compared with the longitudinal scale, b(x) << x, and the jet spreads linearly db/dx = = constant Hence a jet is a boundary layer type of flow. By integrating the xmomentum equation across the jet, and invoking the boundary conditions, we get
M( x ) =
+

dy = constant

The specific xmomentum flux in a jet is preserved. Similarly, by integrating the mass transport equation across the jet as + before, we get
-

uCdy = constant

The mass flux of the tracer is constant.

Invoking the assumed Gaussian profiles, the integrated form of the governing equations in terms of the centerline quantities are
+

The average dilution at any x can be defined as the ratio of the volume flux Q, the amount of flow passing the section per unit time, to the discharge flow Q0. Using the experimentally determined values of =1.35, =0.12, we have jet width b = 0.12x centerline velocity uc/u0 = 2.58 (x/B)-1/2 centerline concentration Cc/C0 = 2.27 (x/B)-1/2 centerline dilution S = 0.44 (x/B)1/2 average dilution S = 0.55 (x/B)1/2

-
+

u 2 dy =

2 2 uc b = u0B 2
2

uCdy = b = u 0 C0 B 2 u c Cc 1+ -

S=

Q - uc b x = = = ( 2 )1/2 ( )1/2 B Q0 Q0 u0 B

udy

Example 10.1 A slot turbulent jet discharges liquid at a velocity 3m/s into a liquid of the same density. Find the maximum time averaged velocity, tracer concentration, and the mean dilution at a distance of 20m from the jet slot. Slot with=10cm, and the initial concentration of the tracer=1000ppm. Solution Q0 =u0B=3x0.1=0.3m2 /s M0 =u02B=3x3x0.1=0.9m3/s2 From the equations in the previous slide, maximum velocity uc =0.55m/s maximum concentration Cc =160ppm mean dilution = 7.8

Three Dimensional Jet

The general experimental features described above for a slot jet also apply for the case of the flow from a circular orifice (diameter D). The diffusion thickness spreads linearly; static pressure is approximately constant, the same type of boundary layer approximations can be made. For this axisymmetric case, the length of the potential core is 6.2D. The specific momentum flux and the mass flux of tracer across a round jet are again preserved. Using the assumption b(x) = x, and the values =0.114, =1.2, the jet properties can be summarized as follows:

jet width b =

0.114x

centerline velocity uc/u0 = 6.2 (x/D)-1 centerline concentration Cc/C0 = 5.26 (x/D)-1 centerline dilution S = 0.19 (x/D) average dilution S = 0.32 (x/D)

TABLE 10.1 Summary of Jet Properties (Based on Gaussian Profiles)

Parameter Initial volume flux Q0 Specific momentum flux M= u2dA=M0 Maximum time-averaged velocity uc Jet width b Maximum time-averaged concentration excess Cc S =Q/Q0 Average dilution Jet spreading angle Ratio of concentration to velocity width Entrainment coefficient

Round Jet Dimensions L3T-1 L4T-2 uc=7.0M01/2x-1 uc/u0=6.2 (x/D)-1 b=0.114x Cc=5.93Q0C0M0-1/2x-1 Cc/C0 = 5.26 (x/D)-1 S =0.286M01/2Q0-1x S = 0.32 (x/D) =0.114 =1.2 =0.057

Plane Jet L2T-1 L3T-2 uc=2.58M01/2 x-1/2 uc/u0 = 2.58 (x/B)-1/2 b=0.12x Cc=2.27Q0C0M0-1/2x-1/2 Cc/C0 = 2.27 (x/B)-1/2 S =0.55M01/2Q0-1x1/2 S = 0.55 (x/B)1/2 =0.12 =1.35 =0.053

Example 10.2 In some cases the turbulent jet solution can be used to estimate dilutions for waste discharges with negligible density difference (e.g. sewage disposal in fresh water). For a round port discharge (diameter 10cm) at depth 20m and initial velocity 1m/s, sediment concentration 100g/m3, estimate the centerline velocity and average dilution and the maximum sediment conc. near the surface. Solution Q0 =u0D2/4=0.00785m3/s M0=Q0 u0 =0.00785m4/s2 From the above table, average dilution = 65; centerline velocity uc =3.1cm/s. Cc =2.6g/m3. N.B. these depth and port dimensions are actually quite typical for submarine outfalls in Hong Kong.

TURBULENT PLUMES

A plume is a pure source of buoyancy. The sewage disposal or stormwater discharge with sediments into the ocean is an obvious example. The discharge fluid is lighter (heavier) than the surrounding fluid, rises (falls) as a result of its lower (higher) density, and in so doing draws ambient fluid radially inwards to replace itself. The convective current exhibits a local equilibrium between vertical buoyant acceleration versus lateral shear and convective acceleration.

The change in volume flux is due to lateral entrainment. The change in momentum flux is due to continuous buoyant acceleration. Assume the density deficiency is a tracer, the integration of tracer conservation equation shows that the specific buoyancy flux is preserved.
F0 = u
0

g2rdr = constant = Q 0 0 g a

Assuming the transverse profiles of the axial velocity and concentration are Gaussian, the continuity equation and axial momentum equation can be integrated. A closed form solution can be obtained by invoking the entrainment assumption that the entrainment velocity is proportional to the centreline axial velocity.

TABLE 10.2 Summary of Plume Properties (Based on Gaussian Profiles)

Parameter Initial specific buoyancy flux F0= /gudA =0/a gQ0 Maximum time-averaged velocity uc Plume width b Maximum time-averaged concentration excess Cc
S =Q/Q0

Round Plume Dimensions L4T-3

Plane Plume L3T-3

uc=4.71F01/3x-1/3 b=0.105x Cc=10.46Q0C0F0-1/3x-5/3

S =0.163F01/3Q0-1x5/3

uc=2.26F01/3 b=0.116x Cc=2.68Q0C0F0-1/3x-1

S =0.465F01/3Q0-1x

Average dilution

Specific momentum flux u2dA Plume spreading angle Ratio of concentration to velocity width Entrainment coefficient

M=0.38F02/3x4/3 =0.105 =1.19 =0.088

M=0.7434F02/3x =0.116 =1.35 =0.103

Example 10.3 We use the base design in Wah Fu Estate sewage outfall, Hong Kong. This is a round port discharge with port diameter D=0.1m, water depth H=20m, discharge velocity u0 =1m/s, and initial relative density difference 0/a=0.025. The initial volume, specific momentum and buoyancy fluxes are: Q0 =0.00785m3/s M0 =0.00785m4/s2 F0 =1.9242x10-3m4/s3 Assuming Q0 and M0 are 'relatively' negligible, the centerline dilution is given by (Table 10.2) S = C0 /Cc = 223 Therefore Q/Q0 >> 1. Also from table 10.2 M/M0 =40.6 >> 1. Thus our starting assumption of negligible Q0 , M0 is valid. Maximum velocity at surface u(x=H) = 0.216m/s Comparing the numerical results for the round plume and the round jet for this same base design values, we see that in the presence of buoyancy, the dilution is enhanced considerably.

AMBIENT STRATIFICATION

Coastal locations frequently show a density stratification of water column. Such stratification may be caused by temperature differences (due to heating of the upper layer) or by salinity differences (due to slightly brackish water from river inflows). The ambient density structure, a(y), may show a continuous variation which may be readily approximated by a linear density gradient, da/dy=constant. In other instances, the ambient density may undergo a relatively sharp transition (pycnocline) which separates a lighter upper layer from a denser lower layer. In any of these situations the waste effluent may become trapped at a level ymax below the free surface. By assuming the same entrainment coefficients as for a uniform stagnant ambient, the integral model can be modified to account for the linearly stratified ambient. The solutions are given in Table 12.3.

Table 12.3 Formulae for plume in linearly stratified ambience

Point Plume
g d a = 4.0(g Qo ) dy a
' 0 1/4 -3/8

Line Plume
g d a = 3.36(g qo ) dy a
' 0 1/3 -1/2

ymax

ymax

-2/3 ' 1/3 5/3 St = 0.093(g 0 ) ymax Q0

-2/3 ' 1/3 St = 0.26(g 0 ) ymax q0

g d a 1 ' (g 0 Q 0 )3 / 4 St = 0.94 dy Q0 a

5 / 8

1 ' g d a 2/3 St = 0.88 (g 0 q 0 ) dy q0 a

1 / 2

N.B. g0' = g0/a, St =terminal centerline dilution, q0 =discharge per unit length of slot

Example 10.4 A slot diffuser of length LD =42m, discharge vertically at a rate of Q0 =0.42m3 /s, with density of effluent 0 =1000kg/m3, to the stagnant ambient of density profile shown below. Find the terminal height where the plume will rise. y (m) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 3 a (kg/m ) 1020.5 1021.0 1022.5 1024.0 1024.5 1025.0 1025.5 a 5. 4.5 3.0 1.5 1. 0.5 0.

Solution Using the formula

' 0

g d a ymax = 3.36(g qo ) dy a
1/3

-1/2

with the approximation da/dy ~ a(ymax)/ymax

The equation becomes

a 3.36 2 (g '0 q o ) = a gy max
2 /3

A series of (ymax, a) can be obtained and the results are as follows ymax(m) 30 25 20 15 10 5 2.5 a(kg/m3) 1020.5 1021 1022.5 1024 1024.5 1025 1025.5 a(kg/m3) 0.7094 0.8517 1.0662 1.4236 2.1365 4.2751 8.5544 The true solution of ymax is that it produces the correct density difference a at that position. The solution is ymax ~ 15m.

DESIGN OF OUTFALL DISCHARGE SYSTEMS

A multiport diffuser is a linear structure with a (usually large) number of ports mounted on, or connected through risers to, a submerged pipe laid on the ocean floor. The nozzles can be oriented in particular arrangements, both in plan and in section, to effect particular types of mixing patterns and to take advantage of the direction of the prevailing ambient current. A multiple diffuser is a very efficient mixing device, capable of rapidly diluting the effluent within a short distance. Three generic types of nozzle/port arrangements the unidirectional, alternating, and staged diffuser. Besides the general arrangement, the pertinent diffuser variables are the diffuser flow Q0 , ambient water depth h, diffuser length Ld =Ns, where s=port spacing, N=number of ports, jet velocity u0 , and port area D2 /4, where D=port diameter.

Unidirectional diffuser

Alternating diffuser

Staged diffuser

In relatively shallow coastal waters of typical depth 5 15m, given practical considerations (e.g. in order to maintain a minimum jet velocity and minimum diameter), multiport diffusers are designed to minimize interference of adjacent plumes. In such case, the required spacing is at least approximately h/3.

Example 10.4 For a sewage discharge of Q =1m3 /s in a stagnant ambient with relative density difference 0/a =0.025, and depth 20m, design a non interfering diffuser to attain a minimum dilution of 100 at the water surface. Solution: Assume the discharge can be approximated by a plume. F0=Q0x0.025x9.81=0.245Q0 Cc/C0=1/100=10.46Q0F0-1/320-5/3=0.113Q02/3 Q0=0.0263m3/s Total discharge = 1m3/s No. of ports required = 1/0.0263 = 38 ~ 40 Therefore the diffuser parameters are N=40, spacing s=h/3=7m, length Ld =7x40=280m. Design Q0=1/40=0.025m3/s Port diameter is somewhat arbitrary, say D=0.25m, then u0=0.51m/s, both quantities are within practical limit.