CH 24 Immune HB 2008

BIOLOGY
CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Fourth Edition

Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor
CHAPTER 24 The Immune System

Modules 24.1 24.2
From PowerPoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Continuing Problem of HIV Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is epidemic throughout much of the world
14,000 people are infected with the AIDS virus every day
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS HIV is transmitted mainly in blood and semen Former L.A. Laker Magic Johnson is one of 900,000 Americans who are HIV-positive
Our immune system is a specific defense system

It backs up several mechanisms of nonspecific resistance
HIV attacks the immune system

It eventually destroys the bodys ability to fight infection
Basic Mechanisms of Defense

There are three basic lines of defense against disease
Vertebrate have all three lines of defense

The 1st line of defense: nonspecific external barriers
Prevent microbes from entering the body
Examples: skin and mucous membranes

The 2nd line of defense: nonspecific internal barriers
Occurs when microbes breach nonspecific external barriers Broad internal responses to microbe infection Examples: phagocytic white blood cells, inflammation, fever

The 3rd line of defense: specific immune response
Immune cells selectively destroy specific invading microbes and toxins Invaders are remembered, allowing for a rapid future response to invasion
NONSPECIFIC DEFENSES AGAINST INFECTION 24.1 Nonspecific defenses against infection include the skin and mucous membranes, phagocytic cells, and antimicrobial proteins The bodys first lines of defense against infection are nonspecific
They do not distinguish one infectious microbe from another
Skin and Mucous Membranes

The skin is important in blocking microbe entry and suppressing microbe growth
Skin is a barrier to microbes
Skin is continually shed, removing microbes that gain a foothold on skin

Many skin secretions contain natural antibiotics
Skin and Mucous Membranes

Mucous membranes have effective microbe defense mechanisms
Mucous membrane secretions contain antibacterial enzymes (example: lysozymes) Mucus traps microbes entering the nose or mouth Respiratory tract cilia sweep mucus and microbes away from lungs
Nonspecific Internal Defenses

Broad defenses that attack microbes that penetrate the skin
Three major categories of nonspecific internal defenses
Phagocytic cells and natural killer cells The inflammatory response Fever
Macrophages wander in the interstitial fluid

They eat any bacteria and virus-infected cells they encounter
Figure 24.1A
Natural Killer Cells

A type of white blood cell
Attack body cells that are cancerous or infected with virus
Secrete enzymes that poke holes in the cell membrane of virally-infected or cancerous cells
Fever
Helps combat large-scale infection by elevating body temperature
Fever
Some cells release cytokines in response to infection
Antibacterial cytokines
Macrophages release endogenous pyrogens: elevate body temperature Other cytokines: decrease iron in the blood Both act to slow bacterial reproduction
Antiviral cytokines: Interferon, which helps cells resist viral attack

Interferon and complement proteins are activated by infected cells

VIRUS
1
Viral nucleic acid

6 Antiviral proteins block
viral reproduction
New viruses
2 Interferon
genes turned on
mRNA
3 5 Interferon
Interferon molecules
stimulates cell to turn on genes for antiviral proteins

4
HOST CELL 1 Makes interferon; is killed by virus

HOST CELL 2 Protected against virus by interferon from cell 1
Figure 24.1B
24.2 The inflammatory response mobilizes nonspecific defense forces Tissue damage triggers the inflammatory response
Skin surface
Pin Phagocytes Bacteria Chemical signals White blood cell Phagocytes and fluid move into area Swelling
1 Tissue injury; release of

chemical signals such as histamine
2 Dilation and increased leakiness

of local blood vessels; migration of phagocytes to the area
3 Phagocytes (macrophages and

neutrophils) consume bacteria and cell debris; tissue heals Figure 24.2
The inflammatory response can

disinfect tissues
limit further infection
24.3 The lymphatic system becomes a crucial battleground during infection The lymphatic system is a network of lymphatic vessels and organs
It returns tissue fluid to the circulatory system It fights infections
Adenoid Tonsil Right lymphatic duct, entering vein Thoracic duct Appendix Spleen Lymph nodes Thoracic duct, entering vein Thymus
LYMPHATIC VESSEL VALVE Blood capillary Tissue cells Interstitial fluid
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARY
Masses of lymphocytes and macrophages
Bone marrow
Lymphatic vessels
Figure 23.3
This lymphatic vessel is taking up fluid from tissue spaces in the skin
It will return it as lymph to the blood
Lymph contains less oxygen and fewer nutrients than interstitial fluid
LYMPHATIC VESSEL VALVE
Tissue cells Interstitial fluid
Blood capillary
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARY
Figure 23.3B
Lymph nodes are key sites for fighting infection

They are packed with lymphocytes and macrophages
Masses of lymphocytes and macrophages Outer capsule of lymph node
Macrophages
Lymphocytes
Figure 23.3C, D
SPECIFIC IMMUNITY 24.4 The immune response counters specific invaders
Our immune systems responds to foreign molecules called antigens

Infection or vaccination triggers active immunity The immune system reacts to antigens and remembers an invader We can temporarily acquire passive immunity
Key Characteristics
The immune response involves specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes
The immune system: lymphocytes, the chemicals they produce, and the organs that they live in
24.5 Lymphocytes mount a dual defense Two kinds of lymphocytes carry out the specific immune response
B cells secrete antibodies that attack antigens T cells attack cells infected with pathogens
Figure 24.5
BONE MARROW
Stem cell THYMUS Via blood Immature lymphocytes
Antigen receptors
B cell HUMORAL IMMUNITY Via blood
T cell CELLMEDIATED IMMUNITY
OTHER PARTS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphatic organs
Final maturation of B and T cells in lymphatic organ
An immune response has three steps

First: recognizing an invader Second: launching an attack Third: remembering specific invaders to ward off future infections
Step 1: Recognizing an Invader

Foreign invaders exhibit characteristic antigens
Foreign molecules that are particular to an invading microbe or toxin Immune cells respond to the presence of antigens
Antibodies and T-cell Receptors

Antibodies and T-cell receptors recognize and bind to foreign antigens
Antibodies
Antibodies are proteins that can be attached to B cells or free-floating in the blood
Antibodies
Antibodies
Y-shaped molecules made of light peptide chains and heavy peptide chains
Both chains have constant and variable regions that form highly specific antigen binding sites Each type of antibody is unique to the B cell that makes them
24.10 Antibodies are the weapons of humoral immunity An antibody molecule
Figure 24.10A
Antibodies
There are five different classes of antibodies, which perform various functions
Inactivate their antigens by binding them and causing them to clump together Assist white blood cells to engulf microbes Activate natural killer cells Bind to blood proteins of the complement system
Antibodies
Some classes of antibodies can cross the placenta and provide immunity to a developing child Another class is secreted in breast milk Both help the newborn, whose immune system is not fully developed
24.6 Antigens have specific regions where antibodies bind to them Antigenic determinants (epitopes) are the molecules to which antibodies bind
Antibody A molecules
Antigenbinding sites
Antigen
Antigenic determinants
Antibody B molecule Figure 24.6

Immune Cells Launch an Attack

Once an invading antigen has been detected, two forms of attack occur
Humoral immunity Cell-mediated immunity
24.7 Clonal selection musters defensive forces against specific antigens When an antigen enters the body, it activates only lymphocytes with complementary receptors
B and T cells multiply into clones of specialized effector cells that defend against the triggering antigen This is called clonal selection
Humoral Immunity
Provided by B cells and circulating antibodies
Attack antigens circulating in the bloodstream and lymph Each B cell has a unique antibody attached to its surface that will only bind with properly shaped antigens
Humoral Immunity
1.
The mechanism of humoral immunity occurs in the following series of steps

Attached B cell antibodies bind to an invading antigen in the blood
2. Bound B cell divides rapidly forming many identical copies (clonal selection) 3. B cell clones differentiate to form memory B cells and plasma cells
Antigen molecules
Variety of B cells in a lymph node
Antigen receptor (antibody on cell surface)
Cell growth division, and differentiation
Clone of many effector cells secreting antibodies
Endoplasmic reticulum
Antibody molecules
Figure 24.7
Humoral Immunity
Memory B cells: saved to fight future infection Plasma cells: mass-produce the specific antibody into the blood
24.11 Antibodies mark antigens for elimination Antibodies may

block harmful antigens on microbes clump bacteria or viruses together precipitate dissolved antigens activate complement proteins
Binding of antibodies to antigens inactivates antigens by
Neutralization (blocks viral binding sites; coats bacterial toxins) Virus
Agglutination of microbes Bacteria
Precipitation of dissolved antigens
Activation of complement
Complement molecule
Bacterium Enhances Phagocytosis
Antigen molecules
Foreign cell Leads to Cell lysis
Hole
Macrophage
Figure 24.11
24.8 The initial immune response results in a type of memory In the primary immune response, clonal selection produces memory cells
These cells may confer lifelong immunity
Figure 24.8A
When memory cells are activated by subsequent exposure to an antigen, they mount a more rapid and massive secondary immune response
Unstimulated lymphocyte
First exposure to antigen
FIRST CLONE
Memory cells
Second exposure to antigen
Effector cells
SECOND CLONE
More memory cells New effector cells
Figure 24.8B
24.9 Overview: B cells are the main warriors of humoral immunity Triggered by a specific antigen, a B cell differentiates into an effector cell
The effector cell is called a plasma cell The plasma cell secretes antibodies
PRIMARY RESPONSE (initial encounter with antigen)
Antigen Antigen receptor on a B cell Antigen binding to a B cell
Cell growth, division, and differentiation
Clone of cells Plasma cell Antibody molecules
Memory B cell
SECONDARY RESPONSE (can be years later) Cell growth, division, and further differentiation Larger clone of cells Plasma cell
Later exposure to same antigen
Memory B cell Antibody molecules

Figure 24.9
24.12 Connection: Monoclonal antibodies are powerful tools in the lab and clinic These molecules are produced by fusing B cells specific for a single antigenic determinant with easy-to-grow tumor cells
Antigen injected into mouse
Tumor cells grown in culture
B cells (from spleen)
Tumor cells
Cells fused to generate hybrid cells Single hybrid cell grown in culture Antibody
Figure 24.12A
Hybrid cell culture, producing monoclonal antibodies
These cells are useful in medical diagnosis

Example: home pregnancy tests
They are also useful in the treatment of certain cancers
Figure 24.12B
24.13 T cells mount the cell-mediated defense and aid humoral immunity Provided by T cells, which attack cancer cells and cells that have been invaded by viruses Three types of T cells are involved
Helper T cells Cytotoxic T cells Memory T cells
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Helper T cells
Bind to antigens presented by a macrophage that consumed them
Cell-mediated immunity
An antigenpresenting cell (APC) first displays a foreign antigen and one of the bodys own self proteins to a helper T cell
Microbe
Macrophage (will become APC) Antigen from microbe (nonself molecule) Self protein
Self protein displaying antigen
T cell receptor
3
Helper T cell
Binding site for self protein
4
APC Binding site for antigen Figure 24.13A
Helper T cells
Produce cytokines that stimulate T cell division and differentiation
Will form memory T cells and cytotoxic T cells

Will also stimulate division of B cells (humoral response) that are bound to an antigen
The helper T cells receptors recognize the selfnonself complexes on the APC
The interaction activates the helper T cells
The helper T cell can then activate cytotoxic T cells with the same receptors
Self protein displaying an antigen T cell receptor Interleukin-2 stimulates cell division Cytotoxic T cell
Cell-mediated immunity (attack on infected cells)
APC
Helper T cell
Interleukin-2 activates other T cells and B cells

Humoral immunity (secretion of antibodies by plasma cells)
B cell Interleukin-1 activates helper T cell

Figure 24.13B
Cytotoxic T cells
Bind directly to cancerous or virally-infected cells
Release proteins that poke holes in cancer/infected cell membrane, killing the cell
Cytotoxic T cells bind to infected body cells and destroy them
1 Cytotoxic T cell binds
to infected cell
2 Perforin makes holes
in infected cells membrane
3 Infected cell is destroyed
Foreign antigen INFECTED CELL
Hole forming
Perforin molecule
Cytotoxic T cell
Figure 24.13C
Memory T cells
Dormant helper T cells that fight future infection by the antigen that produced it
24.14 Cytotoxic T cells may help prevent cancer Cytotoxic T cells may attack cancer cells
The surface molecules of cancer cells are altered by the disease
Figure 24.14
24.15 The immune system depends on our molecular fingerprints The immune system normally reacts only against nonself substances
It generally rejects transplanted organs The cells of transplanted organs lack the recipients unique fingerprint of self proteins
DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM 24.16 Connection: Malfunction or failure of the immune system causes disease Autoimmune diseases
The system turns against the bodys own molecules
Immunodeficiency diseases
Immune components are lacking, and infections recur
Physical and emotional stress may weaken the immune system

24.17 Connection: Allergies are overreactions to certain environmental antigens Allergies are abnormal sensitivities to allergens in the surroundings
B cell (plasma cell) Histamine Antigenic determinant Mast cell
Allergen (pollen grain)
B cells make antibodies
Antibodies attach to mast cell
Allergen binds to antibodies on mast cell
Histamine is released, causing allergy symptoms
SENSITIZATION: Initial exposure to allergen
LATER EXPOSURE TO SAME ALLERGEN Figure 24.17
24.18 Connection: AIDS leaves the body defenseless The AIDS virus attacks helper T Cells
This cripples both cell-mediated and humoral immunity
So far, AIDS is incurable

Drugs and vaccines offer hope for the future
Practicing safer sex could save many lives

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BIOLOGY

CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Fourth Edition

CHAPTER 24 The Immune System

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Our immune system is a specific defense system

HIV attacks the immune system

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic Mechanisms of Defense

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic Mechanisms of Defense

Examples: skin and mucous membranes

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic Mechanisms of Defense

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic Mechanisms of Defense

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Skin and Mucous Membranes

Skin is continually shed, removing microbes that gain a foothold on skin

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Skin and Mucous Membranes

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Nonspecific Internal Defenses

Macrophages wander in the interstitial fluid

Natural Killer Cells

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Antiviral cytokines: Interferon, which helps cells resist viral attack

Interferon and complement proteins are activated by infected cells

Viral nucleic acid

stimulates cell to turn on genes for antiviral proteins

HOST CELL 1 Makes interferon; is killed by virus

HOST CELL 2 Protected against virus by interferon from cell 1

1 Tissue injury; release of

2 Dilation and increased leakiness

3 Phagocytes (macrophages and

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The inflammatory response can

limit further infection

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LYMPHATIC VESSEL VALVE Blood capillary Tissue cells Interstitial fluid

Masses of lymphocytes and macrophages

Tissue cells Interstitial fluid

Lymph nodes are key sites for fighting infection

Masses of lymphocytes and macrophages Outer capsule of lymph node

SPECIFIC IMMUNITY 24.4 The immune response counters specific invaders

Our immune systems responds to foreign molecules called antigens

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Stem cell THYMUS Via blood Immature lymphocytes

B cell HUMORAL IMMUNITY Via blood

T cell CELLMEDIATED IMMUNITY

OTHER PARTS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphatic organs

Final maturation of B and T cells in lymphatic organ