Perception & Errors

What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?

Perception A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

Peoples behavior is Peoples behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself. reality itself. The world as it is The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally important. important.

Factors influencing perception

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside in the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived or in the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

 Factors influencing Perception

Factors in the perceiver Attitudes Motives Interests Experience Expectations

Factors in the situation Time Work Setting Social Setting

Perception

Factors in the Target Novelty Motion Sounds Size Background Proximity Similarity

Perpetual process-Simplified format

Perpetual inputs Stimuli Perpetual outputs Actions/response

Perpetual throughputs

Receiving Selecting Organizing Interpreting

Characteristics /Stimuli/Inputs

Behavior

Perpetual mechanism Perpetual Inputs -- Objects --Events --People Selection Interpretation

Organization

Perpetual outputs -- Attitudes --Opinions --Feelings --Values

Characteristics of situation

Characteristics of perceiver

Perceptual Process Receiving Stimuli (External & Internal)

Selecting Stimuli External factors : Nature,

Location, Size, contrast, Movement, repetition, similarity Internal factors : Learning, needs, age, Interest,

Interpreting Attribution ,Stereotyping, Halo Effect, Projection

Organizing Figure Background , Perceptual Grouping ( similarity, proximity, closure, continuity)

Response Covert: Attitudes , Motivation, Feeling Overt: Behavior

Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others

Attribution Theory When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. Consistency: responds in the same way over time. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Attribution Theory

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Errors and Biases in Attributions

Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Selective Perception People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Selective Perception People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Halo Effect Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic Contrast Effects Evaluation of a persons characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Projection Attributing ones own characteristics to other people. Stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs.

Specific Applications in Organizations

Employment Interview Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers judgments of applicants. Performance Expectations Self-fulfilling prophecy: The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities. Ethnic Profiling A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled outtypically on the basis of race or ethnicityfor intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.

Specific Applications in Organizations (contd)

Performance Evaluations Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employees job performance. Employee Effort Assessment of individual effort is a subjective judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual Decision Making

Problem A perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state. Decisions Choices made from among alternatives developed from data perceived as relevant.

Perception Perception of the of the decision decision maker maker

Outcomes

Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making Model

Rational DecisionMaking Model Describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome.

Model Assumptions Model Assumptions Problem clarity Problem clarity Known options Known options Clear preferences Clear preferences

Constant Constant preferences preferences No time or cost No time or cost constraints constraints Maximum payoff Maximum payoff

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

1. Define the problem. 2. Identify the decision criteria. 3. Allocate weights to the criteria. 4. Develop the alternatives. 5. Evaluate the alternatives. 6. Select the best alternative.

Common Biases and Errors

Overconfidence Bias Believing too much in our own decision competencies. Anchoring Bias Fixating on early, first received information. Confirmation Bias Using only the facts that support our decision. Availability Bias Using information that is most readily at hand. Representative Bias Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting category.

Common Biases and Errors

Escalation of Commitment Increasing commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information. Randomness Error Trying to create meaning out of random events by falling prey to a false sense of control or superstitions. Hindsight Bias Falsely believing to have accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known.

Toward Reducing Bias and Errors

Focus on goals. Clear goals make decision making easier and help to eliminate options inconsistent with your interests. Look for information that disconfirms beliefs. Overtly considering ways we could be wrong challenges our tendencies to think were smarter than we actually are. Dont try to create meaning out of random events. Dont attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.

 Increase your options. The number and diversity of alternatives generated increases the chance of finding an outstanding one.

Activity