TRANSPORT

CHAPTER 1 FORM 5

Haemolymph in insects

1. Tubular heart pump the haemolymph into the fluid-filled spaces called haemocoel 2. Haemolymph bathes tissues and internal organ directly 3. Nutrients and hormones diffuse from haemolymph into the cells 4. Waste product diffuse from the cells into the surrounding haemolymph

Structure of human blood vessel

ARTERY Carries blood away from the heart ARTERIOLES Smaller vessels than artery
CAPILLARIES 1.Tiny wall and vessels 2.Exchange of gas ,nutrients & waste

VEINS Carries blood back to the heart

VENULES

ARTERY Tranport blood away from the heart Transport oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery) Thick muscular walls No valves except semilunar valves at thebase of the aorta and pulmonary artery

CAPILLARIES Connect arterioles to venules Act as the site for exchange of substances with the cells Thinnest walls ,one cell thickness No valves

VEINS Transport blood to the heart Transport deoxygenated blood (except the pulmonary vein) Thinner walls Valves present to prevent back flow of blood

Blood flow in pulse No pulse. Pressure under high lower than arteries pressure but higher than veins

No pulse. Blood flows under lower pressure than arteries.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HEART
Dark red cone- shaped muscular organ found in thoracic cavity Size- a clenched fist ,weight- 350 to 450 gram Location-between lung, apex slightly oriented to the left Consist of-1. two upper thin walls (atria) 2.two lower thick walls (ventricle) 3. septum- separate right chamber & left chamber 4. valves-ensure blood flow in one direction only. Myogenic cardiac muscles- not controlled by a nervous system

VALVES
1. Left atrium and left ventricle ( biscupid valve) 2. Right atrium and right ventricle( triscupid valve) 3. Aorta and pulmonary artery(semilunar valves)

HOW HEART FUNCTION?

SAN- located at right atrial wall , near entrance of superior vena cava - act as pacemaker which initiates heartbeat
SA node generate waves of excitatory impulse

Waves seperated to the two atria Atria contract simultaneously Blood is forced from the atria to the ventricles

 AVN- at base of right atrium

AVN is stimulated.

Impulse from AV nod is conducted by bundle of his and purkinje fibres. This impulse is conducted to ventricle. Ventricle contract and pump blood out of the heart.

Left ventricle pump blood to the aorta (greater preasure).

Right ventricle pump blood to the pulmonary artery.

ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER
Small artificial pacemaker placed in upper chest Pacemaker generates electrical impulse which are conducted by wire to the heart to control heartbeat

CARDIAC CYCLE
Series of event that occur during one complete heartbeat includes-1. contraction (systole) 2. relaxation (diastole) average heart rate 72 heartbeat per minutes

HOW DOES BLOOD FLOW TO THE HEART?

Body moves
Skeletal muscles around the veins contract and press on the veins
Blood pressure increases.forces open the valves and pushes the blood toward the heart

1. Sympathetic nerve- increase heartbeat 2. Parasympathetic slow the heartbeat

REGULATORY MECHANISM OF BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood pressure- force of the blood exerted on the walls of the arterial blood vessels. Blood pressure highest during ventricular systole and blood pressure lowest during diastole Normal blood pressure is 120 systole /80 diastole mm Hg Baroreceptor(strecth- sensitive receptor) monitor blood pressure flowing to the body BP human can be measured using sphygmomanometer.

HOW TO REGULATE HIGH BP?

Increase in blood pressure strecthes baroreceptor Impulse sent to cardiovascular control centre in medulla oblangata in the brain Impulse are sent via the parasympathetic nerve to the heart

Slow down heartbeat

Decrease in blood pressure

HOW TO REGULATE LOW BP?

Decrease in blood pressure

Increase stimulation of SA node by the sympathetic nerve

Increase in contraction of cardiac muscle of the heart and smooth muscli of the artery

Blood pressure increses and back to normal

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN FISH

Single closed circulatory system Has two separate chamber ; atrium and venticle

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN AMPHIBIAN

Double circulatory system ; pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation It has three chanber with two atria ang one ventricle Oxygenated blood mixed with deoxygenated blood in ventricle Frog ; on land ( use lung) and when thy dive in water ( use skin)

Pulmonary circulation

Systemic circulation

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HUMAN

Has four chambered heart which act as two separate pump 4 chamber prevent oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood from mixing Seperation of right and left chamber prevents high blood pressure from damaging the capillaries Human have double close circulatory system

Pulmonary circulatory system

Systemic circulatory system

BLOOD CLOTTING
NECESSARY FOR BLOOD CLOTTING

Prevent the entry of foreign particles and microorganism into the body Prevent excessive blood loss Maintain the circulation of blood in a closed circulatory system Maintain normal blood pressure

Blood clotting mechanism

INJURY

PLATELETS

THROMBOKINASE

THROMBIN

calcium

PROTHROMBIN

Vitamin k

FIBRIN

FIBRINOGEN

FORMATION OF THE INTERSTITIAL LYMPHATIC SYSTEM FLUID

Blood from the arteries flow at a high pressure into the blood capillaries High pressure force some fluid out through the capillary walls into the intercellular space between the cell. Fluid that fill up the space between body cell is known as interstitial fluid

Important of the interstitial fluid

Help substances to diffuse in and out of the body Oxygen, nutrient and hormone diffuse from the interstitial fluid to the body cell Waste product like urea and carbon dioxide pass from the body cell to the interstitial fluid

Fate of the interstitial fluid

Interstitial fluid is returned to the blood circulatory system in two ways

90% interstitial fluid diffuse back into the blood capillaries because the pressure at the arterial end of the capillary is higher than that of its venous end 10% of the fluid diffuse into the lymph capillaries of the lymphatic system. The fluid in the lymphatic vessels are known as lymph. The lymph will finally return to the circulatory system via the subclavian veins .

Structure of the lymphatic vessels

Thoracic duct is largest lymphatic vessels in the body - carries lymph to the left subclavian vein and back into the bloodstream Right lymphatic duct- transport lymph from the right side of head and chest into the right subclavian Lymphatic vessels - a network of tubes with many branches - example thoracic duct right lymphatic duct -semi-lunar valves make sure lymph flows in one direction and prevent its backflow Lymph capillaries- find blind-ended tubes present in the spaces between body cell Lymph nodes - found at armpits, neck and groin - produce lymphocytes which provide anti bodies to protect the body against infection.

Structure of the lymphatic vessels

Thymus gland - produce hormones that help with maturation of lymphocytes Spleen - help body to resist infection

Roles of the lymphatic system

The lymphatic system transport excess interstitial fluid back to the blood vessels their the subclavian vein. If excess fluid is not return to the blood vessels, the body tissues become swollen and oedema occurs The lacteals in the ileum absorb fatty acid and glycerol and transport them via the lymphatic system into the thoracic duct back to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system uses antibodies produced by the lymphocytes to defend the body against disease.

Differences Between Blood Plasma, Interstitial Fluid and Lymph

Features Location Type of blood Blood cell

Blood plasma

Interstitial fluid

Lymph In the lymphatic vessels Deoxygenated blood Only leucocytes

Inside blood vessels In the intercellular spaces Oxygenated blood Leucocytes, platelet, erythrocytes More Low Oxygenated blood Only leucocytes

Protein content Lipid content

Less Low

More High

OUR BODY DEFENCE MECHANISMS

First line of defence Second line of defence Third line of defence

First line of defence :

Acts as physical and chemical barriers that prevent pathogens from entering body Non-spesific defences, do not differentiate one pathogen from another Skin ; - sweat and sebum Mucos membranes ; -secreation of mucus

Second line of defence :

If pathogens get through the first line of defence, they will meet the second line of defence Also non-spesific defences Neutrophils and monocytes (white blood cell) acts as phagocytes When there is an infection, number of white blood cell increases to try to destroy the pathogen

When an infection occurs,neutrophils and monocytes migrate to the infected area, attracted by chemical produced at the site of infection

The phagocytes move towards the pathogen and engulf them by phagocytosis

Digestive enzymes are secreted into the phagocytic vacoules to destroy and digest the bacteria

Useful soluble products are absorbed and assimilated by the phagocytes (sometimes phagocytes are destroy by toxins)

Phagocytosis

Third line of defence :

If pathogens managed to overcome the second line, third line of defence is actived Involves immune system Spesific or targeted defence Each antigen induced certain lymphocytes to secrete spesific antibodies that only react with that antigen T-lymphocytes : attacked cells infected by pathogen B-lymphocytes : produce antibodies Interaction between antibody and antigen : immune response After an infection, some lymphocytes remain in the body as memory lymphocytes-help defend further infection by same antigen

Ways Which antibodies Help to Defend the Body :

Agglutination :
Antibodies cause phatogen to clump together. The clumping makes it easy for phagocytes to destroy the pathogens

Opsonisation :

Neutralisation :

Antibodies that binds to antigens to acts as markers so, antigens can be easily recognised and destoy it

Antibody binds to toxins , neutralises the toxin produced. This prevent toxin molcule from attaching to cell and causing damage

Lysis :

Lysins-antibodies that bind to antigens and cause antigens to repture or disintegrate

Types of Immunity :
Active - Body produce its own antibody

Passive - body receive antibody from an outside sources

Natural -Acquired after a person recovers from an infection -Permanet immunity - examples : chickenpox

Artifical -Immunity obtained through immunisation or vaccination

Natural -Immunity obtained from mum - through placenta or mothers milk

Artifical -Obtained through injection of serum which contain spesific antibodies from blood of human or animals - example: snake bites

HIV :
Virus that attacks human immune system T-lymphocytes Leads to AIDS Symptoms : - immune system become weakened - weight loss - decrease the function of nervous system

 Transmission of HIV :
- sexual contact - pregnat mum(HIV transfer through placenta) - contaminated neddles used to inject drugs However, pregnant mum can prevent it with proper medical treatment

Prevention of AIDS :
1. Do educational programmes 2. Blood products used should be treated to destroy the virus 3. Until now, no vaccine for AIDS although certain drugs may retard the progress of disease

THE NECESSITY FOR TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS Carbon Dioxide - absorbed and transported to photosynthesing cells
Oxygen released from photosynthesing cells into the atmosphere Water & minerals absorbed by the roots have to be transported to all parts of the plant Photosynthetic products transported away from the leaves for storage & to others tissue needing them

Mineral ions required for chlorophyll synthesis, healthy plant growth & deveploment
Plants have a slower & less elaborate transport system than the blood circulatory system of animals

Vascular tissues in stems, roots & leaves

Vascular system are formed by the xylem & phloem tissues The roles of the vascular tissues : ~ The xylem : give support & transport water and minerals ions from the roots to the upper parts of the plant ~ The phloem : transport organic food substances synthesis by the leaves during photosynthesis to other parts of plant

Structure of xylem in relation to transport

Xylem transport water & dissolve mineral

salts from the roots to other parts of plant o Xylem consists : a) Tracheids conducting cells *dead cells with lignified walls, but they do not have open ends b) Vessels conducting cells * It cell walls are strengthened by lignin to prevents the collapse of the vessels & provide mechanical supports c) Parenchyma storage of food

Structure of phloem in relation to transport

Phloem transport organic food substances from the leaves both upwards and downwards to various plant parts Phloem consists : a) Sieve tubes - transport foods from leaves for storage in stem & roots - transport foods from the storage roots to other parts of the plant needing it b) Companion cells - provide the metabollic support for the sieve tube cells in the transport of manufactured food o Bark ringing provides evidence that food is transported in the phloem

Transport of substances in plants

Translocation : two-directional transport, upwards or downwards of soluble organic food materials by the phloem from the leaves to other parts of the plant ~ The Importances : a) to allocate food to all parts of the plant which do not manifacture their own food b) in assisting the production of energy, growth and maintenance of the plant Transpiration The loss of water in the form of water vapour from a plant to the atmosphere through the stomata, the cuticle or lenticles of plants ~ The Importances : a) Cooling the plant b) providing support by turgor pressure c) transporting water & mineral salts

Pathway of water from the soil to the leaves

The soil Root hair cells Across the cortex Xylem vessels of the roots Xylem vessels of the stem Xylem vessels of the veins in leaves Mesophyll cells Stomata Surrounding air The movement of water in the xylem up the stem is explained by : a) root pressure b) transpiration pull c) cohesion thoery of water d) adhesion theory of water Root pressure : the pressure exerted by the roots of plants which is caused by osmosis Guttation : the exudation of h2O from the hydathodes of leaves as a result of the root pressure

Opening & Closing stomata

Dicot leaves have stomata on the lower surface Monocot leaves have stomata on both upper & lower surface Consists of a pair of kidney-shaped guard cells Contains nucleus,Cytoplasm & chloroplast Photosynthesis occur during the day Glucose is produced accumulation of K+ the osmotic pressure in the guard cells increases Water enters by the osmosis from surrounding epidermal cell into the guard cell become turgid and curve outward stomata open At night, the guard cells become flaccid because the osmotic pressure in it decreases & stomata is closed

Factors affecting transpiration

Light intensity Air movement Temperature Relative humidity