II.

Pathways of Discovery in Microbiology

1.6 The Historical Roots of Microbiology 1.7 Pasteur and the Defeat of Spontaneous Generation 1.8 Koch, Infectious Disease, and the Rise of Pure Culture Microbiology 1.9 Microbial Diversity and the Rise of General Microbiology 1.10 The Modern Era of Microbiology

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1.6 The Historical Roots of Microbiology

The Historical Roots of Microbiology
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was the first to describe microbes
Illustrated the fruiting structures of molds (Figure 1.9b)

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) was the first to describe bacteria (Figure 1.10b)
Further progess required development of more powerful microscopes

Ferdinand Cohn (1828-1898) founded the field of bacteriology and discovered bacterial endospores
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Robert Hooke and Early Microscopy

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Robert Hooke and Early Microscopy

Figure 1.9b Copyright 2009 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The van Leeuwenhoek Microscope

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1.7 Pasteur and the Defeat of Spontaneous Generation

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
Discovered that living organisms discriminate between optical isomers Discovered that alcoholic fermentation was a biologically mediated process (originally thought to be purely chemical) Disproved theory of spontaneous generation (Figure 1.13)
Led to the development of methods for controlling the growth of microorganisms

Developed vaccines for anthrax, fowl cholera, and rabies

Pasteurs Experiment
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The Defeat of Spontaneous Generation: Pasteurs Experiment

~1860: Where do microorganisms come from? Spontaneous generation?

Heat was used to kill the microbes in liquid

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Figure 1.13a

The Defeat of Spontaneous Generation: Pasteurs Experiment

When dust was prevented from reaching the sterilized liquid, no microbes grew in the liquid
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Figure 1.13b

The Defeat of Spontaneous Generation: Pasteurs Experiment

Contact with dust resulted in growth of microbes in the liquid disproved spontaneous generation
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Figure 1.13c

1.8 Koch, Infectious Disease, and the Rise of Pure Cultures

Robert Koch (1843-1910)
Definitively demonstrated the link between microbes and infectious diseases
Identified causative agents of anthrax and tuberculosis

Kochs postulates (Figure 1.15) Developed techniques (solid media) for obtaining pure cultures of microbes, some still in existence today Awarded Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1905

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Kochs Postulates

Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis Organism present in blood of all diseased animals cause or result of the disease?
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Figure 1.15

Kochs Postulates

Conclusion specific organisms cause specific diseases Kochs postulates can be extended beyond disease-causing organisms
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1.9 Microbial Diversity and the Rise of General Microbiology

General Microbiology
Field that focuses on non-medical aspects of microbiology Roots in 20th century

Martinus Beijerinck (1851-1931)

Developed Enrichment Culture Technique
Microbes isolated from natural samples in a highly selective fashion by manipulating nutrient and incubation conditions e.g., Nitrogen-fixing bacteria

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1.9 Microbial Diversity and the Rise of General Microbiology

Sergei Winogradsky (1856-1953) and the Concept of Chemolithotrophy
Demonstrated that specific bacteria are linked to specific biogeochemical transformations (e.g., S & N cycles) Proposed concept of chemolithotrophy
Oxidation of inorganic compounds linked to energy conservation (Figure 1.19)

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Major Concepts Conceived by Sergei Winogradsky

Figure 1.19a Copyright 2009 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Major Concepts Conceived by Sergei Winogradsky

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Some Landmarks in Molecular Microbiology since 1985

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Brock Biology of Microorganisms

Chapter 2

Twelfth Edition Madigan / Martinko Dunlap / Clark

A Brief Journey to the Microbial World

Lectures by Buchan & LeCleir
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II. Cell Structure and Evolutionary History

2.5 Elements of Cell and Viral Structure 2.6 Arrangement of DNA in Microbial Cells 2.7 The Evolutionary Tree of Life

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2.5 Elements of Cell and Viral Structure

All microbial cells have the following in common:

Cytoplasmic membrane Cytoplasm Ribosomes

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Internal Structure of Prokaryotic Cell

No organelles
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Internal Structure of Eukaryote Cell

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2.5 Elements of Cell and Viral Structure

Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotes
DNA enclosed in a membrane-bound nucleus Cells are generally larger and more complex Contain organelles

Prokaryotes
No membrane-enclosed organelles No nucleus Generally smaller than eukaryotic cells
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Electron Micrographs of Sectioned Cells

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Electron Micrographs of Sectioned Cells

Yeast cell, 8 m diameter

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2.5 Elements of Cell and Viral Structure

Viruses
Not considered cells No metabolic abilities of their own Rely completely on biosynthetic machinery of infected cell Infect all types of cells Smallest virus is 10 nm in diameter Viruses of bacteria = bacteriophages

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Virus Structure and Size Comparison of Viruses and Cells

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2.6 Arrangement of DNA in Microbial Cells

Genome A cells full complement of genes Prokaryotic cells generally have a single, circular DNA molecule called a chromosome
DNA aggregates to form the nucleoid region Prokaryotes also may have small amounts of extrachromosomal DNA called plasmids that confer special properties ( i.e., antibiotic resistance)

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2.6 Arrangement of DNA in Microbial Cells

Eukaryotic DNA is linear and found within the nucleus
Associated with proteins that help in folding of the DNA Usually have more than one chromosome Typically have two copies of each chromosome

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The Nucleoid

[Insert Fig. 2.14]

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2.6 Arrangement of DNA in Microbial Cells

Escherichia coli Genome
4.68 million base pairs 4,300 genes 1,900 different kinds of protein 2.4 million protein molecules

Human Cell
1,000X more DNA per cell than E. coli 7X more genes than E. coli
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The Tree of Life Defined by rRNA Sequencing

Figure 2.17 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

2.7 The Evolutionary Tree of Life

Evolution
The process of change in a line of descent over time that results in new varieties and species of organisms

Phylogeny
Evolutionary relationships between organisms Relationships can be deduced by comparing genetic information (nucleic acid or amino acid sequences) in the different specimens Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) are excellent molecules for determining phylogeny Can visualize relationships on a phylogenetic tree
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Gene Sequencing and Phylogeny

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2.7 The Evolutionary Tree of Life

Comparative rRNA sequencing has defined three distinct lineages of cells called domains.
Bacteria (prokaryotic) Archaea (prokaryotic) Eukarya (eukaryotic)

Archaea and Bacteria are NOT closely related. Archaea are more closely related to Eukarya than Bacteria.

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2.7 The Evolutionary Tree of Life

Eukaryotic microorganisms were the ancestors of multicellular organisms Mitochondria and chloroplasts also contain their own genomes (circular, like prokaryotes) and ribosomes
These organelles are ancestors of specific lineages of Bacteria Mitochondria and chloroplasts took up residence in Eukarya eons ago This arrangement is known as endosymbiosis

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The Tree of Life Defined by rRNA Sequencing

Figure 2.17 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings