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Nationalism in India 19201947

Focusing on the practice of civil resistance between 1920 and 1931.

Topics

Development of the Indian National Congress 1920-22 Noncooperation Movement 1920-22 Gandhis calling off the movement in 1922 The Bardoli Satyagraha 1928 1930-31 Civil Disobedience Movement - 1930 Salt March - 1930 Chittagong Armoury Raid - violent resistance Chandrasekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh - 1931 Gandhi-Irwin Pact

Conclusion

Development of the Indian National Congress

Established in the late nineteenth century as an organisation for the new educated professional and commercial class. 1918-1923 = Transformation of Congress in its political and organizational character. (Gandhiji played a huge role in this)

Nagpur Constitution of 1920 made big difference. As did Gandhis leadership of it and the consequent aims and objectives it took on.he had confidence from recent successes such as the Rowlett Satyagraha- his first Indian mass movement Gandhi demanded the attainment of Swarajya (total independence) by the people of India by all legitimate and peaceful means in a year. Main features of the new Constitution were: 1. Attainment of Swaraj by all legitimate and peaceful means 2. 4-anna membership 3. Provincial Congress committees reorganised on linguistic basis, with a hierarchy of provincial district- sub-district/town village committees 4. Delegates to Congress sessions to be in proportion to population of a province (roughly one delegate to every 50,000 of a population). Therefore less crowded and more effective 5. All India Congress Committee formed to meet about four time a year 6. Congress Working Committee with about 15 members formed as

So what actually changed?


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All-India Congress Committee Most important body, acted as the Parliament. Its decisions were binding on all subordinate units Met 4 times per annum Elected by Provincial Congress Committees, and numbers increased from 181 in 1918 to 350 in 1921. Implications of this were a higher number of elected delegates and greater representation and influence Creation of the Working Committee Congress acquired for the first time an executive body active throughout the year. Met once per month (kept on top of current events and changes- meant could adapt) Gave day-to-day direction to the organisation (organised) Gandhi was its inventor and said of it; its decisions have to be largely unanimous it can be dismissed by the All-Indian Congress Committee According to Gopal Krishna, its creation was one of the most innovative and important aspects to Congresss development during this period (and therefore to the movement due to Congresss central role) because of the way that through it, Gandhi attempted to meet the need for a compact and disciplined executive to direct a loosely-knit mass movement which had to maintain a broad coalition of divergent elements- everyone involved and working together

Delegates at Congress Pre-1920 there was no limit to the number of delegates who could attend the annual and ad hoc special sessions. Therefore often dominated by those from the local districts and provinces. Rival factions could pack the sessions with supporters. Unfair and unrepresentative. (safeguard- usually majority voting but still an issue) - Post- 1920 changed system of delegates. One per 50,000, made sessions far more representative. Provinces allocated a quota of delegates according to population. - 1923 number of delegates attending had declined dramatically. - 1921 Ahmedabad = 4728 - 1922 Gaya = 3848 - 1923 Cocanada = 1661 - Many Congressmen in prison and demoralisation followed the 1922 collapse of the movement

Membership Nagpur Constitution 1920 introduced paid membership (voluntary). - Annual subscription of 4 annas. - Hope to provide a significant part of the financial resources needed for Congress works. - Although figures incomplete, were areas where membership strong e.g. Gujarat, Hindustani, Bengal. - 1922-23 membership declined, only 106, 046 for 16/20 provinces. - BUT Jawaharlal Nehru said extent of people following not in peoples desire to join but in Congresss capacity to reach remote villages (funds)

Minorities: Congress sought their participation, especially Muslims. Muslim involvement had been limited (sought Muslim-orientated goals) but World War One and threat to the Khalifa helped. Muslim League, Central Khilafat Committee (1921 10.9%) Post 1923 their support and involvement decreased, although retained support of the religious leaders of Indian Islam. Once Gandhi had gained control over Congress, he gained support of Congress for the Khilafat - in June 1920 he had demanded that Congress support the demands of the Khilafat Movement. SomeKhalilf of the Ottoman Empire was their spiritual head (not all believed this) After WW1, defeat of Germany and Turkey in 1918 a harsh settlement was imposed, with Turkey losing much of her empire. Ali brothers launched strong protect of non-cooperation against British Gandhi thought could work together > strength in unity and numbers Gandhis work with untouchables sign of will for inclusivity and unity. Attempts to branch out- lots of time, money and effort exerted on this. (movement as a whole still marked by fissions of Indian society but Congress was progressing) Love of the people brought the problem of untouchability early into my life. My mother said, You must not touch this boy, he is an untouchable. Why not? I questioned back, and from that day my revolt began Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of India under perpetual subjectionInhuman ourselves, we may not plead before the Throne for deliverance from the inhumanity of others (Young India, 1921)- the movement all encompassing Faith in general Tried to have religious representation according to population percentages. Hindu 68% of pop, 1918 76% of AICC (All-Indian Congress Committee) to 1923, 72.5%

Leaders Mostly educated, middle or upper class. Monopoly of lawyers. Successfully mixed up the occupational status of its leaders. More representative Pre-1920 social position secured a leading role in the Movement. Post-1920 it was the renunciation of social position and the demonstration of willingness to accept sacrifices that was demanded of those who desired to lead. Gandhi told lawyers that they had to make choice, keep their Congress position and lose their legal practice, or leave.- therefore got people who were totally committed. So Indian National Congress represented a broad national front not a tightly organised party. Gandhi it is not a party organisation but it developed a structure of authority paralleling that of the British- like a state within a state. Own uniform (khadi) and operated in Hindu as much as English. Provided a platform for all parties like a coalition consisting of elements which agreed on general aims and methods but not always on specific items of policy or program. Forum for debate Very loose structure, democratic (limits) useful as general aim at this point was the same (in 1920-21 that is. Later were factions) Delegates were not bound by Congress decisions (e.g. on sectional aspects such as industrial strikes) Acquired a very strong executive arm which gave effect to its official policy

Non-cooperation Movement 1920-22

So developing Congress took up most of 1920 and with good reason. It resulted in the advantages discussed (representation, organisation, funding to act and empower, democratic procedures etc.). Congress had also through these developments developed a structure of authority paralleling that of the British- like a state within a state. It had its own uniform (khadi) and operated in Hindi as much as in English. Delegates were not bound by Congress decisions (e.g. lack of action in sectional disputes such as strikes) Gandhi had made a loose coalition of interests, classes and different religious groups and constantly worked towards this aim. strength through uniting and numbers and the exchange of ideas. Gandhis personal charisma often held it together (when he was in jail, Nehru and Patel initially unsure what to do). Alliance was a fragile one. So 1920 taken up by creating the right situation to allow for action to be taken. 1921 year of mass action. Early 1921, NCO launched by students leaving schools and colleges. Two big student strikes in Calcutta and Lahore. Alternative national schools founded and two units in Aligarh and Ahmedabad. Lawyers gave up practice (choice for those in Congress, Congress or practice = the committed) e.g. Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das Popular arbitration courts established July 1921 boycott of foreign cloth launched (Gandhi

Public bonfires of foreign cloth, even Bhagat Singh was involved. Picketing of shops selling foreign cloth Import of foreign clothes halved during NCO - power of mass movement Nationalists expected to wear khadi (handspun and handwoven cloth- Indian) > employment and self-sufficiency in rural areas. Emphasised dignity of manual labour Congress supporters were supposed to spin regularly (in film Gandhi always spinning). Showed Indian unity, and capability. Gandhi saw it as a uniform- white so always had to washed = clean = pure. Quickly became a symbol of anti-British feeling and nationalist commitment. For many, was their first contact with national movement. Sense of empowerment and involvement. Pride. Those who wore it became a target of police attention. Pupils at government schools were not allowed to wear it. Movement escalated in second-half of 1921 Main areas of strength: * Uttar Pradesh. January- March 1921, peasants attacked zamindars in Awadh. Protesting against high prices. Clashes with police and Kisan Sabhas were formed which Gandhi condemned because he argued that the peasants should fight the government, not fellowIndians. Jawaharlal Nehru began his political work in this movement. Eventually this led to the Awadh Rent Act of 1921 which gave greater security to peasants (useful to have lawyers on board, can articulate and argue well) * Bihar. This was a very strong movement. It also became violent at times such as when peasants were claiming to be Gandhis disciples but it did force merchants to lower prices. (problems of peasant belief in Gandhi as miracle man, didnt fully comprehend his Satygraha. Power of personality and charisma, brilliant- quote from official, but also a problem.) * Punjab. Many Sikh peasants were involved (not religiously exclusive) in this protest. They demanded that control over their temples (gurudwaras) be taken out of the hands of corrupt priests who were backed by the British, and should instead be replaced by popular control (the Akali Movement) * Bengal. Big strike in Calcutta jute mills in 1921, due to cut-backs for workers. Strong HinduMuslim unity in this strike (quite unique). In Midnapor District, peasants refused to pay their tax to the district board after it tried to increased taxes. It was mainly the richer peasants who were involved (point made by R. Kumar about mill strikers in Bombay, the great textile

* Assam. Strong protests. Workers in the tea gardens, demanding higher wages. Rumours of a Gandhi Raj in which labourers would be given land * Gujarat (one of the areas most politically active throughout, gave second highest donations to the Tilak Swaraj Fund). Strong movement in areas in which Gandhi had worked in 1918, and also in rural south. Patidar peasants to the fore. Bardoli Taluka particularly strong- he was selected in late 1921 to inaugurate official Congress notax campaign (Gandhi delegated) Congress cadres were sent to prepare the area (funding) This was a ryotwaru areas, with no landholding intermediaries between the peasants and the British. * Southern Rajputana. Bhil movement led by Motilal Tejawat. Anti-landlord. * Madras Presidency. Andhra coastal region sees richer peasants refusing to pay taxes (note how rarely poorest peasants are involved), under belief that Gandhi Swaraj is coming and we shall not have to pay any taxes. In interior of Andhra, tribal peasants break forest laws > was believed that Gandhi would abolish forest regulations. * Kerala. Mapilla peasants were inspired by Khilafat to rise. Belief that a new Islamic state is about to be inaugurated in which there would be no expensive litigation and the present system of police would be abolished. Turned violent in August 1921 when a police raid on a mosque led to a wide scale violent rising against Hindu landlords (not good for movement cohesiveness). British lost complete control over two sub-districts for two months and Khilafat Republics were established. Approx. 600 Hindus were killed and 2500 forcibly converted. Revolt suppressed harshly, with 2337 rebels being killed and 1652 wounded. 45,000 people taken prisoner. So not good- Gandhi not happy (although as in 1915-18, did show that was considerable discontent that with the right organisation, leadership and control could potentially be harnessed.)
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November, Prince of Wales (future Edward VIII) visited India. Congress boycotted him and there were large demonstrations. Also some fights between middle and upper class Indians who wished to warmly welcome the Prince and the demonstrators who did not. This was in Bombay and through the clashes, 20 died. Gandhi was much disheartened by this (as well as the accumulation of all of the above, and of course, the Amritsar Massacre of 1919 was still fresh in everyones minds- violence by British. Clearly there was a great propensity for violence on both sides at this time). Gandhi postponed taking the movement on to its next level of tax-refusal in Bardoli. And, furthermore, by the end of 1921, Gandhi was having

Chauri-Chaura 1922

Town near Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. February 4, 1922. Around 2000 protestors gathered for picketing of the liquor shop at the local market in ChauriChaura (Gandhi advocated temperance- lots of trees cut down in this cause). Sensing trouble (or looking for it depending on your take) armed policemen were sent to keep order. Crowd march towards market shouting anti-government slogans. Some dispute over what happened next, some say police fired into air as warning and then attacked the demonstration. Others say no warning. Crowd responded with stone throwing and situation got out of control. Police started firing on the crowd. Three demonstrators killed (two Hindu, one Muslim) Crowd chased the police to the police station and set it on fire with the policemen inside it. 22 policemen died. British furious and imposed martial law in Chauri-Chaura and surrounding areas Later, 172 were sentenced to death for this, and 19 were actually hung. Gandhi mortified. Decided to call off the movement. So what does this case show? propensity for violence on both sides. Violence met out with violence. Congress and Gandhi not yet get total control and message of satyagraha not yet been internalised Criticisms Historiography- Gandhi saw it as a bigger problem than it was Gandhi was and continues to be criticised for his suspension of the movement. Was deeply resented by almost all prominent Congress leaders and by younger activists. Did lose a lot of support after this point (many resorted to violent measures in the interim between 1922and 1928/30 e.g. Bhagat Singh. Look at decreased Congress membership and donations) but Gandhi had repeatedly warned that he was prepared to lead only a strictly non-violent campaign, and that its aim was not class struggle or social revolution. Thought was not an isolated incident, but a shocking episode in a rising trend of violence which could have degenerated into total mob violence, which would justify martial law and police suppression of even more civil liberties Needed time to rethink and regroup

Gandhis calling off the movement 1922

Subhas Chandra Bose (Gandhis biggest rival for leadership of Congress in 1930) said of Gandhis decision; the Mahatma opens a campaign in a brilliant fashionmoves from success to success till he reaches the zenith of his campaign- but after that he loses his nerveshortcomings inherent in the movement from the very beginning (what are these?) and which were to reveal themselves more and more with the lapse of timetoo much power and responsibility was handed over to one manthe promise of Swaraj within one year as not only unwise but childishno leader worth the name should impose impossible conditions

(Gandhi in a letter to members of Congress Working Committee, Bardoli, 8 February 1922) This is the third time I have received a rude shock when I have been on the eve of embarking upon mass civil disobedience. The first was in April 1919 (Amritsar Massacre, 1516 casualties with 1650 bullets- official figures. General Dyer. ), the second in November last (Bombay, Prince of Wales visit), and now I am violently agitated by the events in the Gorakhpur District (Chauri-Chaura)The civil disobedience of Bardoli can make no impression upon the country when disobedience of a criminal character goes on in other parts of the country, both for the same ends. The whole conception of civil disobedience is based upon the assumption that it works in and through its completely non-violent character. I may be a bad judge of human nature to believe that such an atmosphere can ever be brought into a vast country such as India, but that would be an argument for condemning my capacity for sound judgement, not for continuing a movement which is in that case bound

1928 Bardoli Satyagraha


The Patidars of Bardoli continued to give fervent support to the Congress. In the mid-1920s, British ordered 22% increase in land-tax. The peasants decided to fight this.(had been ready to launch in 1921 but then movement ended. Still remained supportive of Gandhi though and he very impressed by them- area of low crime, loyalty to him etc) Approached Gandhi, and he deputed Vallabhbhai Patel to organise the protest In 1928, Patel took the movement in Bardoli in hand. Patel organised the Bardoli campaign brilliantly. The resolution to refuse the land tax was taken in February 1928. Patel established an army of Congress workers there, who ensured that there be strong solidarity. Those who paid their taxes suffered social boycott. He depicted this as a religious battle of moral righteousness against an evil government. British took coercive measures, confiscating property and land, which they threatened to sell. This had no effect, due to the solidarity. The movement was given strong publicity, bringing many leading nationalist figures to Bardoli to provide moral support. Pressures were brought to bear on the government in Delhi and the Viceroy, Lord Irwin. Bombay authorities did not want to compromise, but Irwin was at that time trying to win the Congress leaders around to a new plan for further devolution of power, and he put pressure on the Bombay authorities. They agreed to set up a commission to investigate the tax increase. The protest was then called off. The commission found that the increase was excessive and that irregular methods had been used to make the calculations, and it recommended in May 1929 that the increase be much less. Because of his superb leadership, Patel became known as a great peasant leader. Significantly, Gandhi stayed largely away from Bardoli, as he did not want to compromise Patels leadership. This allowed Patel to use methods, such as caste boycott and intimidation of supporters of the British that Gandhi himself would not have sanctioned. In 1929, Patel announced that he would support struggles by peasants anywhere in western India against high tax rates. He held talks with local leaders in Maharashtra to see if such struggles could be launched there. He set up a body called the Bombay Presidency Land League to fight for lower taxes. The Bombay Government became very frightened, and in July 1929 announced that it was suspending all proposed tax increases, and that there would be no further increases or revisions until the forthcoming constitutional reforms had gone

1930-31 Civil Disobedience Movement


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1930 Salt Satyagraha British hadnt responded to their boycott of the Simon Commission, nor of Congresss demands for the British at the least, to grant India dominion status (Gandhi had moderated views of younger men like Subhas Chnadra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru). He reduced his call for this to a year. No response. Gandhi as ever informed his Dear Friend Lord Irwin (Viceroy) of his plans for the Salt March. It was a march against British monopoly of the salt trade, Indias pulse. High tax on the salt. Illegal to make it or sell it without a government license. Gandhi said that every Indian man had the right to make his own salt, it was from the Indian ocean which was his, not the British let everyman claim it as his own 248miles from Ahmedabad to Dandi, took from 12 March 5 April. At Dandi, symbolic act by Gandhi of making salt himself. See photo. Over 12,000 congregated in Dandi Thousands joined him on route. (few Muslims so fissures of Indian society seen) 30,000 greeted them in Surat ad at railhead for Dandi, 50,000 gathered! Wave of resignations of local officials followed. Gave interviews along the way. Gandhi commended the government for not interfering with the march This symbolic campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting the British hold on India (back with a bang). Start of deliberate, systematic civil disobedience Something which people everywhere could mimick sense of empowerment and pride and unity. People everywhere outright breaking the law selling own made salt in the street etc. Police imprisoned more and more. Gandhi warned that could do so but more would follow until they couldnt imprison anymore The Salt March launched a nationwide protest against the British salt tax. On May 4, 1930, Gandhi wrote to Lord Irwin, Viceroy of India, explaining his intention to raid the Dharasana Salt Works. He was immediately arrested. The British government, represented by Lord Edward Irwin decided to negotiate with Gandhi (Irwin and Gandhi apparently got on quite well, or at the very least respected each other. Irwin always insisted that police should not arrest Gandhi- fear of protest and backlash To arrest Gandhi is to set fire to the whole of India (nationalist n newspaper) and they regularly met and drank tea together

Leadership of Sarojini Naidu (female poet and member of the Working Committee) and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Some Congress leaders disagreed with Gandhi's promotion of a woman to lead march Several times, Naidu and the satyagrahis approached the salt works, before being turned back by police. At one point they sat down and waited for twenty-eight hours. Hundreds arrested

1931

Gandhi felt the focus for the campaigns next phase should remain salt. Should include boycotts of foreign cloth and liquor. Should discourage not paying taxes or breaking forest regulations because these not inherently unjust like the salt May 14 and 22, Congress volunteers attempted march on Hazratganj (Lucknow) - Congress claimed some killed. Lucknow did not win right to march through the street that signified British power, but it forced Raj to abandon the fiction that imperial rule anything but government at gunpoint Bombay city salt satyagraha and cloth picketing were everywhere. Volunteers took over the streetslarge, well organised marches Congress had identified an issue that had personal meaning to the people and was a symbol for the general injustice of the British Chittagong, Bengal, terrorists barged their way into and sacked a campaign begun in the spirit of ahimsa (and armoury raid) Northwest Frontier, Muslim Pathans, Abdul Ghaffar Khan- picketed liquor stores. Soldiers opened fire, killed 65. Local officials stepped into the fore when Congress leaders arrested Large scale concentrations of protestors e.g. Dharasana and Lucknow made people vulnerable to attack so Congress emphasised small-scale dispersed actions e.g. boycotts Underground journals etc. when government confiscated printing presses Withholding payments occurred, over land revenue- Patidars. Moved possessions across border (so crack-down British couldnt get them). Resistance to land revenue also took hold in U.P sharp agricultural prices decline second half of 1930 Was breaking of forest legislation e.g. by Gond and Korku tribe people Rural civil disobedience more difficult for Congress to control- always behind the curve and struggled to direct and check violence Bombay climax, 12 Dec. Picketers laid in street to block trucks carrying foreign goods, young volunteer killed. Madras City, Calcutta, Congress employed similar techniques Boycotts huge impact Huge strain on police after Amritsar British reluctant to use soldiers Sporadic involvement though couldnt not be, without Muslim involvement e.g. Punjab and the Sind little trouble for British (Muslim majority) only 1152/29,000 prisoners in jail for civil disobedience offences in November were Muslims (were smaller percentage of population though- see Congress slides) Class divisions too starkly apparent mostly middle, few very poor peasants

Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the Delhi Pact signed 1931

By signing Gandhi and Irwin were committing themselves to the following; - discontinuation of the civil disobedience movement by Congress in return for - participation by the Indian National Congress in the Round Table Conference - Withdrawal of all ordinances issued by the British Government imposing curbs on the activities of the Indian National Congress - Release of prisoners arrested for participating in the civil disobedience movement - the removal of tax on salt, which therefore allowed the Indians to produce, trade and sell salt legally and for their own private use Many Indian citizens, and indeed members of Congress felt this fell a long way too short of the movements overarching aims and were angry and disappointed in Gandhis signing of it. No inquiry into police abuses, farmers could not recovered seized land that had been sold, picketing of foreign cloth and liquor shops could continue but not as a political sanction. Salt laws would stay in place but govt would not interfere with small-scale manufacture for domestic use. Jawaharlal Nehru bitterly disappointed. Gandhi gave a lot, Irwin gave little. Irwin I do regard it as a very astonishing thing that Gandhi should have been so far persuaded to come into line Gandhi himself was disappointed. Round Table talks in London shortly after achieved nothing. Only way forwards is with more civil disobedience BUT within months of his signing the pact, Irwin was succeeded by the far more hard line Lord Willington. Ready and waiting. Although this round of civil disobedience did not strictly speaking finish until 1934, after the first six months it failed to seriously

Violence

Others were clearly not so convinced. Wanted vengeance for Amritsar, general conditions under British rule an violent repression. Bande Mataram (a Congress Extremist) stated; peaceful means can succeed only when these imply the ugly alternative of more troublesome and fearful methods, recourse to which the failure of peaceful attempts must inevitably lead to Gandhi claimed to admire and adore terrorists patriotism and giving of their lives to the cause for it had much sacrifice to its credit but he felt that their methods were wrong and were more a hindrance than an advantage There were violent acts being carried out during this period of mass non-violent resistance too perhaps Gandhi felt if signed the pact would give a bit of hope and pull people back to non-violence (by this stage had accepted that some chose to follow his satyagraha not for a way of life but for political expedience) So what violence was there? Numerous sporadic small cases. Also the Chittagong Armoury Raid of 1930 as well as various revenge killings Chittagong Armoury Raid Attempt on April 18, 1930 to raid the armoury of police and auxiliary forces from Chittagong by revolutionary freedom fighters led by Surya Sen. Believed in armed uprisings for Indian independence Armoury was captured as planned, couldnt locate the ammunition but succeeded in dislocating telephone and telegraph communications and disrupting trains Total of 65 revolutionaries took part (not much when compared to Gandhi and Congress Movement of this year) Military salute, raised National Flag Police traced some of the revolutionaries hiding in Jalalabad hills on outskirts of Chittagong (April 22) Over 80 British and 12 revolutionaries killed in ensuing gunfire Sen arrested February 1933. Tried and hung, January 1934 General Violence During 1930-32 22 officials and 220 non-officials were killed in separate incidents by such pro-violent groups, organisations, and individuals This time, Gandhi had vowed not to call off the campaign due to violence Violence always present, even in 1940s such as in 1942

Chandrasekhar Azad

Real name = Chandrasekhar Sitaram Tiwari Azad means freedom (after first arrests for involvement in non-violent campaign in 1921) After suspension of Non-Cooperation Movement attracted by more aggressive and violent revolutionary ideas (although long held fascination with guns) Independence by any means led to his forming the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and was mentor for others such as Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev etc. HSRA wanted full Indian independence and to build new India on socialist principles Kakori Train Robbery (1926) which was an attempt to blow up the Viceroys train, and the shooting of John Poyantz Saunderes (1928) to avenge the killing of Lala Lajpat Rai (a widely revered Congressman- beating sustained during anti-Simon Commission demonstration) Vowed that he would never be arrested by British police and would die a free man. February 27, 1931 met two comrades at Slfred Park, Allahabad. Tip off, police surrounded park and ordered Azad surrender. Fought alone, killed 3 policemen. Shot in thigh, used ammunition saw no means of escape and shot himself Photo shows how police laid out Azads dead body for the public to see in order to display what would happen if you behaved like Azad. a deterrent

Bhagat Singh

Family history of involvement in revolutionary activities against the British Raj Quickly rose through ranks of the Hindu Republican Association. Gained support (but not of Gandhi- Singh bitter about this, self-sacrifice and suffering etc) when underwent a 63 day fast in jail demanding equal rights for Indian and British political prisoners. Won campaign. Hung for shooting police officer in response to killing of Lala Lajpat Rai. Hung 1931 His shooting of police officer was only discovered after he was arrested after bombing the Legislative Assembly of Central Government with Batikeshwera K. Dutt. One person injured claims position of bomb etc. meant didnt want to actually kill anyone but ignored at trial. On leaflet he threw in with the bombs It is easy to kill individuals but you cannot kill the ideas Violent resistance displayed graver risks and less reward. Needed media support from outside, people less sympathetic to violence and Gandhi said not proving that were able to selfgovern Few numbers compared to non-violent campaign, but cannot be ignored because did affect the movement significantly prompted others to act as such and for the movement to be called off, and numerous fasts by Gandhi (fact that his fasting worked in bringing back peace is interesting point though) Difference in age range (Congress 31-50, violence often much younger, see case of Singh and Azad- was the Congress campaign directly engaging the younger population?) Did hinder the movement? Tainted it but also used to advantage. Worse of two evils scenario. Gandhi even said

Aftermath of 1930-31

Mid-1930s civil disobedience suspended and raj still in place = Indian nationalists new course Gandhi continued as unifying symbol, when demanded, stepped briefly onto political stage but mainly focused on constructive work such as liberating the untouchables, and women, promoting village industries, reforming education and sanitation etc. Congress kept aiming for Indian independence, but after reforms of 1935 which expanded the electorate and enhanced the role of elected provincial legislatures (so was some leeway as Gandhi had anticipated with the Delhi Pact) so its leaders turned to working within the system rather than as a separate entity outside of it. Parlayed its popular influence into votes. World War II ended this participation. Oct 1939 Congress ordered the resignation of its provincial ministers, and moved once more into outright opposition (war without consulting any Indian representatives and refused to meet nationalist demands as a reward for loyalty) 1942 Quit India resolution triggered a mostly spontaneous and violent popular rebellion, almost 100,000 arrested and over 1000 killed. Outside India, Subhas Chandra Bose raised the INA (Indian National Army) and fought the British alongside the Japanese For the British, during the war the police had slipped badly in discipline and loyalty and reliability of Indian soldiers also in doubt. INA hailed as heroes. British post-war economy probes couldnt cope with any new repression exerted in India Labour Party 1945, time ripe for change Any political statement by now had to win consent of not just Congress, but also the Muslim League- now question not of communal relationships in independent India but rather possible creation of separatist state (Gandhi didnt want this) Sikhs threatened by this, homeland of the Punjab seemed likely to be partitioned between two states. 1946-7 violence. Gandhi fasts. Students march- 5000 Muslims alongside 5000 Hindus- not tension everywhere India seemingly crumbling, Britain want to opt out

Conclusion

Media. Very charismatic and influential man but flaws to such leadership too much responsibility, miracle stuff so people dont understand. Congress worked well but even this had its own problems- nothing runs smoothly. Imposes to have no violence. Did achieve some goals but success not as quickly as Gandhi and the population had hoped Many improvements made though, even if not obvious e.g.. changes to Congress played big role for future of Indian politics. Good group of committed Congressmen. Did pretty well to harness the nation. Despite flaws, everyone makes mistakes. Comparative advancements being made compared to violence. First real indication of mass movement and people power on a grand scale, and the influence one man

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