STATE OF ARTS SEMINAR ON

STUDY OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING PROPERTIES OF HIGHER GRADE API 5L PIPELINE STEELS
GUIDED BY DR. K.N. PANDEY BY R.P. MISHRA 2010 RME 07

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION BURIED PIPELINES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES BURIED PIPELINES IN INDIA MAJOR PIPELINE FAILURES BASICS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING MECHANISMS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING STUDIES DONE ON API PIPELINE STEELS SCOPE OF PRESENT WORK REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION
Natural gas and oil pipeline networks play an important role in the national economy of many countries as well as global economics. Transmission pipelines network transfer oil products from oil fields to refineries, distribution sites and purchaser. Despite the introduction of polymers and composites in recent years , metals remain important in pipeline transportation because of their strength, stiffness, toughness and tolerance of high temperature. Most of the pipelines are buried underground in a depth of 1 to 2m, and despite all the protective coatings on its outer surface , the outer metal comes in contact with the moist earth due to disbonding of coatings after certain age of the pipeline. Unfortunately , most commonly used engineering metals are subjected to corrosion . The safety and durability issues related to these pipelines are actual and very important. Sometimes SCC induced damages disturb transporting process which mostly result in- Direct cost in repairs and replacements. - Explosion and firing which has sometimes resulted in loss to human lives. - Some irrepairable pollution to its surroundings and ecology. Almost all countries using pipeline transportation network have faced multiple pipeline failure problems due to SCC which is increasing with aging pipelines. Therefore identification and recognition of corrosion and its related failures in transmission oil product pipelines is important and necessary.

OIL & GAS PIPELINES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

BURIED PIPELINE FAILURES DUE TO SCC

On March 4,1965 a 610-mm gas transmission pipeline, north of Natchitoches, Louisiana USA, belonging to the Tennessee Gas Pipeline explodes from stress corrosion cracking, killing 17 people. This incident was the first publicly documented pipeline failure attributed to This accident led thenPresident Lyndon B. Johnson to call for the formation of a national pipeline safety agency. (March 4, 1965)[6] 1974 A 30 inch gas transmission pipeline failed and gas ignited near Bealeton, Virginia, on June 9, from hydrogen stress cracking 1985 A 30 inch gas pipeline at about 960 psig, weakened by atmospheric corrosion, ruptured and tore out about 29 feet (8.8 m) of the carrier pipe 1986 A 30 inch gas pipeline ruptured due to corrosion near Lancaster, Kentucky. 3 people had serious burns, and 5 others had lesser injuries. External corrosion made worse by difficulties of Cathodic Protection in rocky soil was the cause. (February 21, 1986)[100] 1999 A pipeline rupture in Knoxville, Tennessee, and released over 53,000 gallons of diesel fuel into the Tennessee River on February 9. A brittle-like crack was found on the pipe in an area of coating failure. 2000 A petroleum pipeline failure in Greenville, Texas, on March 9. A 28-inchdiameter pipeline ruptured and released 13,436 barrels (about 564,000 gallons) of gasoline. The probable cause of the pipeline failure was corrosion-fatigue cracking that initiated at the edge of the longitudinal seam weld.

BURIED PIPELINE FAILURES DUE TO SCC (CONTD.)

In the USA between 1965 and 1986, SCC was reported have caused over 250 pipeline failures. On December 13, 2003 the Williams 26-inch line ruptured near Toledo Washington.. The 46-year-old line ruptured twice in six months, the federal Office of Pipeline Safety told Williams Northwest Pipeline it must replace every section of line it hopes to use, or prove it is resistant to Stress Corrosion Cracking Company officials expect the costs of the replacement work to run into the millions of dollars. The company's natural-gas artery burst with a roar on May 1, 2003 near Lake Tapps, sparking evacuations at a school, a supermarket and about 40 homes. While such eruptions are typically caused by land movement or other outside forces, inspectors later identified the cause as stress corrosion cracking. The line had passed inspection within the previous year.

FAILURE OF WILLIAMS 26 PIPELINE

BURIED PIPELINE FAILURES DUE TO SCC (CONTD.)

2003 A natural gas pipeline ruptured near Viola, Illinois on February 2, resulting in the release of natural gas which ignited. A l6-foot long section of the pipe fractured into three sections, which were ejected to distances of about 300 yards from the failure site. 2005 On May 13, an underground natural gas pipeline exploded near Marshall, Texas, sending a giant fireball into the sky and hurling a 160-foot (49 m) section of pipe onto the grounds of a nearby electric power generating plant. 2 people were hurt. The OPS concluded that stress corrosion cracking was the culprit. In 1965 , about 22% of the failures in Russia were caused by SCC Between 1995 and 1997, SCC caused nearly half of the failures on Russian gas pipe line of 1240 to 1420mm diameter. In 1994 the Canadian Energy Pipeline Association ( CEPA ) recognized SCC as a major challenge facing the pipeline industry. On February 15. 1994 a rupture occurred on the 1067-mm natural gas pipeline 35 km north of Maple Creek ,Saskatchewan In 1996 , Canadas National Energy Board ( NEB ) released a 158 page report on SCC in pipelines that said Above report says , since 1977 , SCC has been the cause of 22 pipeline failures including 12 ruptures and 10 leaks in gas and oil pipeline systems.

BURIED PIPELINE FAILURES DUE TO SCC (CONTD.)

SCC also drew blame for seven explosion in the Trans Canada Pipe Line systems between 1985 and 1995. In April 2004 a 10 inches dia. API 5LX52 oil product transmission line cracked in Northern part of the Iran which led to oil leakage. This pipeline was 27 years old and SCC along with SRB was recognized after testing as per API RP-38 .(s-4) A main transmission line of the Sui-Northern Gas Pipeline Limited failed in Pakistan n the year 2007. A 40 feet long portion of pipe was thrown away about 50 feet away from the main line and escaping gas caught fire (F-9). A 14 inches diameter oil pipeline in Argentina failed due to SCC ,the material was API 5LX46 and it was 37 years old.(c-1) A 24 inches gas transmission line failed in 31m length in Argentina. It was 28 years old API 5L X52 pipe. Secondary cracks exhibited failure due to SCC.(c-1) On January 10, 2011 SCC occurred in high pressure gas pipeline in Northern regions of Iran. It was 40 years old API 5L X60 pipeline . The polyethylene tape disbonded and pipe was exposed to wet soil.(e-3)

(a) Schematic diagram of rupture of Pakistani Pipeline Failure (F-9) (b) A ~40 ft long portion of pipe labeled B was thrown away to a distance of ~50 ft

FAILURE OF BURIED PIPELINE IN ARGENTINA (C-1)

Fig. Irregular propagation of crack at the origin of the failure

Fig. Secondary cracks close to the main fracture in the failed pipeline

CASE STUDY OF SCC FAILURE OF PIPELINE

BASICS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) .Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the cracking induced from the combined influence of tensile stress and a corrosive environment. The impact of SCC on a material usually falls between dry cracking and the fatigue threshold of that material. The required tensile stresses may be in the form of directly applied stresses or in the form of residual stresses,. Cold deformation and forming, welding, heat treatment, machining and grinding can introduce residual stresses. The magnitude and importance of such stresses is often underestimated. The residual stresses set up as a result of welding operations tend to approach the yield strength. The build-up of corrosion products in confined spaces can also generate significant stresses and should not be overlooked. SCC usually occurs in certain specific alloy-environment-stress combinations.

BASICS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

FIG.1- CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SCC TO OCCUR

 Tensile stress- includes

Fabrication stress Service stress
Operating pressure Cyclic Loading Strain Rate Secondary Loading

Basics of SCC

Susceptible Material-includes
Surface Condition Steel Microstructure

Corrosive Environment-includes
Coating Disbondment Moisture and CO2 Cathodic Protection Level Soil Conditions Temperature

MECHANISMS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Three basic mechanisms of stress corrosion cracking have been identified as described below1. ACTIVE PATH DISSOLUTION: -This process involves accelerated corrosion along a path of higher than normal corrosion susceptibility, while the bulk of the material remains typically passive. - The most common active path is the grain boundary, where the segregation of impurity elements make it more difficult for passivation. -This starts with a form of crevice corrosion where the grain boundary corrodes with the specimen surface and crack walls remaining passive. -This process can occur in the absence of stress, giving rise to intergranular corrosion that is uniformly distributed over the specimen. -The effect of applied stress is mainly to open the cracks, thereby allowing easier diffusion of corrosion products away from the crack tip and allowing the crack tip to corrode faster. -Active path corrosion processes have very low rate of corrosion of the metal at the crack tip. The maximum crack growth rate is around 10 2 mm/s and in general crack growth rates are much lower, down to 108 mm/s ( which comes out to be 1mm in 3 years.

MECHANISMS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

2. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT:
-Hydrogen dissolves in all metals to a moderate extent. It is a very small atom, and fits in between the metal atoms in the crystals of the metal. -It can diffuse much more rapidly than larger atoms. For example, the diffusion coefficient for hydrogen in ferritic steel at room temperature is similar to the diffusion coefficient for salt in water. -Hydrogen tends to be attracted to regions of high triaxial tensile stress where the metal structure is dilated. Thus, it is drawn to the regions ahead of cracks or notches that are under stress. -The dissolved hydrogen then assists in the fracture of the metal, possibly by making cleavage easier or possibly by assisting in the development of intense local plastic deformation. -These effects lead to embrittlement of the metal; cracking may be either inter- or transgranular. Crack growth rates are typically relatively rapid, up to 1 mm/s in the most extreme cases

MECHANISMS OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

3- FILM INDUCED CLEAVAGE: -If a normally ductile material is coated with a brittle film, then a crack initiated in that film can propagate into the ductile material for a small distance (around 1m) before being arrested by ductile blunting. -If the brittle film has been formed by a corrosion process then it can reform on the blunted crack tip and the process can be repeated. -The brittle films that are best-established as causing film-induced cleavage are dealloyed layers (e.g. in brass). -The film-induced cleavage process would normally be expected to give a transgranular fracture.

COMMON STRESS CORROSION CRACKING SYSTEMS

MATERIAL
Carbon steel

ENVIRONMENT
Hydroxides Nitrates Carbonate/ bicarbonate Liquid ammonia CO/CO2/H2O Aerated water Water

CONCENTRATION
high moderate low -

TEMP
high moderate moderate low low very high moderate

MODE
I I I T T T T

Low Alloy Steel (e.g. Cr-Mo, Cr-Mo-V) Strong Steels ( y>1200 MPa) ( y>800 MPa) ( y>600 MPa) Austenitic Stainless Steel (incl. sensitised) Sensitised Austenitic Stainless Steel Duplex Stainless Steel

Water Chloride Sulphide Chloride Hydroxide Aerated water Thiosulphate or polythionate Chloride Chloride + H2S Chloride (usually + H2S) Water vapour Chlorides Chlorides Methanol Ammoniacal solutions

high high low high high moderate low high low

low low low high very high very high low very high moderate low low low low low low

M M M T M I I T T T T I T T I

Martensitic Stainless Steel High Strength Aluminium Alloys Titanium Alloys Copper Alloys

EXPLANATIONS OF THE TERMS USED IN THE TABLE OF SCC SYSTEMS 1. This Table presents the systems for which SCC problems are well established and of practical importance. The absence of a metal-environment combination from this Table does not mean that SCC has not been observed. 2. There are rarely well-defined temperature or concentration limits for SCC, and the ratings given here are indicative only. As an approximate guide the terms used equate to the following ranges of values: Concentration Up to 10-2M Up to 1 M Around 1 M Near saturation Temperature Ambient Below 100 C Around boiling Above boiling

Low Moderate High Very high

3. The fracture mode is classified as : Intergranular (I) -where cracks go along the grain boundaries, Trans granular (T) -where cracks go across the grains, or Mixed (M) -where there is a combination of the two modes, or where the mode can vary depending on the conditions. 4. Very high temperature (> 200 C) water environments very aggressive, and will cause SCC of a wide range of materials. Expert advice is essential for materials selection for such conditions.

TYPES OF STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Two forms of SCC in the external surface of buried pipelines have been identified: high-pH or classical SCC and low pH or near neutral SCC. The high-pH form is by far the most reported form of SCC. High-pH SCC on pipelines is characterized by the presence of patches or colonies of numerous fine, usually very shallow, longitudinal intergranular cracks with little evidence of secondary corrosion . Cracking is associated with relatively concentrated carbonatebicarbonate Solutions having pH values of approximately 9. The growth rate of this type of SCC increases exponentially with temperature and stress level. Because of that the number of failures falls markedly with increased downstream distance from compressor and pump stations, where the transported fluid is heated. Cathodic protection (CP) plays an important role in high-pH SCC because the range of higher susceptibility electrochemical potentials is between 600 and 750 mV (Cu/CuSO4) and CP Is effective to achieve these potentials under disbonded coatings.

Low-pH or near neutral SCC on the external surface of pipelines is associated with specific soil conditions at free corrosion potential, where cathodic protection is ineffective. In this type of SCC there is no correlation with temperature, crack morphology is transgranular and evidence of substantial side wall corrosion is normally found. Low-pH SCC occurs with the presence of dilute solutions of carbonate-bicarbonate having a pH of around 6 (good tap water with a little bit of CO2). Both types of SCC have only been observed under disbonded coatings and it Is generally accepted that a fluctuating stress component is required for crack growth.