Mathematics Portfolio Rebekah Schumacher Spring 2011

Portfolio of Rebekah Schumacher

Spring 2011

Statement about Mathematics

Mathematics is a challenge. Perhaps this is what draws me to it. Those that claim that mathematics is difficult are absolutely correct, yet this never deterred my resolution to complete my math courses. Despite their intensity, I learned that I loved the solidity of working through problems and having a concrete feeling of satisfaction when I arrived at the correct answer. What perhaps intrigued me most about mathematics was that regardless of its difficulty, there is a certain simplicity and artistry present as well. It has been said that mathematics is the language of science, and I believe that more now than ever before. Looking past the computational requirements, the intricacy of how math is intertwined with almost every other field has always amazed me. The opportunities for growth in mathematics are endless. There is no cap on knowledge. How much I am able to comprehend or understand is solely my decision. There is little subjectivity in mathematics for either I understand it or I do not, and the ability to have this kind of control over how well I perform in my work is satisfying. The certainty of mathematics is ultimately what has drawn me to this field, and I am pleased to have a chosen a subject that challenges my scope of knowledge.

Portfolio Elements
Basic Content Advanced Content Mathematic Modeling and Applications Proofs

Basic Content
Integration by u-substitution
Integration by substitution is a process by which one indefinite integral is transformed into another; however, the second integral is simpler than the first, making the basic computation easier. The first step in u-substitution is to choose your u which requires practice. In this example, sin x is chosen. Then, du is written as the derivative of u as illustrated here by cos x. Then one integrates the simpler indefinite integral before substituting back to eliminate u.

Substitution is useful for it allows us to find the antiderivative of a function which is often required when working with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

Basic Content
Integration by trigonometric substitution
A special form of u-substitution that is helpful when integrating is trigonometric substitution. Often integrals that contain roots of quadratic expressions are ideal candidates for trigonometric substitution even if this is not obvious at first glance. Consider the example to the right. Carefully choosing our x to be tan u provides us with the trig identity to the right. Substituting this identity into our integral allows us to obtain the most simple integral. Choosing the proper trig identity or substitution is the most challenging aspect of these integrals; however, if chosen correctly, they can reduce integrals that contain roots of quadratic expressions to powers of trig functions.

Basic Content
Absolute extrema of a function on a closed interval
Finding the absolute extrema of a function, i.e. min and max, is a component of a highly applicable realm of mathematics known as optimization. Using the example on the right, one must first take the derivative of the function and then find the critical points of the function by setting the derivative equal to 0. Evaluating the function at the endpoints yields the absolute min and max. Furthermore, taking the second derivative of the function and evaluating it at the critical points will yield the local min and local max.

Being able to find maximum and minimum values of functions in the real world is a highly valuable application of calculus.

Basic Content
Determining convergence/divergence of series by the Ratio Test
Determining the convergence or divergence of a series is possible by using many different tests, one of which is the Ratio Test. This test states the following: Suppose that for all a > 0 for all k and that

Then for all L < 1, the series converges; for all L >1, the series diverges; for L=1, the test is inconclusive which indicates that either convergence or divergence is possible. The example given above demonstrates that the given series diverges after algebraic manipulation converts it into a form to which the Ratio Test can be applied.

The Ratio Test is often more simple to use in place of the Comparison Test; however, in the event that L=1, the Comparison Test should be used instead. The Ratio Test is also particularly beneficial for power series.

Basic Content
Equivalence Relation
An equivalence relation as we have learned in discrete mathematics is a relation who has the qualities of being reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The reflexive property is defined by the following: For x X, R is reflexive if x R x. For the symmetric property: R is symmetric if for every x R y, then y R x. For the transitive property: R is transitive if for every x R y and y R z, then x R z. To demonstrate, consider the following relation: R = {(a,a), (b,c), (c, b), (d,d)} First, we check for the reflexive property. It is clear to see that this relation does to hold the property since there exists no (b,b) or (c,c). Next, we check the symmetric property. The relation is symmetric since for (b,c), (c,b) does exist. Lastly, we check the transitive property. It is also evident that this relation is not transitive since for (b,c) and (c,b), (b,b) does not exist. Hence, the relation is not an equivalence relation since it does not fufill all three properties required.

Basic Content
Probability of Winning the Lottery
To understand the possibility of winning the lottery from a mathematical perspective requires the use of probability. Let us consider the following example: Suppose that in a local lottery game, a prospect is required to choose three numbers between 0 and 9. In a particular type of box play win, three distinct numbers chosen by the prospect must match those drawn by the lottery representative with repetitions permitted. If the prospect were to choose three distinct numbers, then the probability of winning the lottery is as follows:

Here, 103 represents all the total possibilities of matches between the prospect and the lottery representative, and 3! represents the total number of combinations that the prospect is able to choose. Dividing the latter from the former obtains the prospects prospects, or 0.006 chance of winning the lottery.

Basic Content
The inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix
The inverse of a matrix is often useful in solving matrix equations. Given a 2 x 2 matrix, one way of solving to obtain the inverse is through Gauss-Jordan elimination. Examining the following matrix will show this process:

The first step is to write the matrix A directly next to the identity matrix, then using the steps of Gauss-Jordan elimination, eventually obtain the identity matrix on the opposite side. To ensure that the resulting inverse matrix is correct, one need only multiply AA-1 and check that the identity matrix is the result of the multiplication.

Basic Content
Cross Product
Within Linear Algebra, a type of vector multiplication that is used to produce a vector as a product in 3-space is the cross product. The definition of this product is that given two vectors u=(u1, u2, u3 ) and v = (v1, v2, v3 ) in 3-space, the cross product u x v is defined by or in determinant notation by Consider the simple example of u x v where u = (1, 2, -2) and v = (3, 0, 1). Using the cross product, the following is obtained: One final note regarding the cross product is that while both the cross product and the dot product are two types of vector multiplication used in 3-space, the difference between the two is that the cross product is a vector while the dot product is a scalar.

Advanced Content
Integrating Factors for Linear Differential Equations
Rather than simply guessing in order to solve first-order nonhomogenous linear differential equations, another method that is used is that of integrating factors which is a more analytical approach. The idea is that an integrating factor often known as (t) can cause the differential equation to take on the shape of the derivative of a product of two functions. If an integrating factor that satisfies the equation can be found, then a new differential equation is created. Both sides of this new equation can be integrated with respect to t, allowing the computation of the general solution y(t).

Of course, it should be noted that this only will work if the integrating factor can be found and if the integration is actually possible. However, a formula has been found that allows easy calculation of the integrating factor by using

Advanced Content
Normal Subgroups
The definition behind a normal subgroup is that given a subgroup H of G, H is considered a normal subgroup of G iff xhx-1 H for every h H and every x G. Suppose we were asked to check whether the subgroup is a normal subgroup of the multiplicative group G of invertible matrices in M2(R). To do so, we show the following: Since aH=Ha, then for all a G aHa-1 = H x1Hx = H. While this is a simple example, normal subgroups are important for two main reasons. The first is that they are precisely the kernels of homomorphisms, and the second is because they can be used to create quotient groups from a given group.

Advanced Content
Neighborhoods
In the realm of Real Analysis, a neighborhood is based on the principle of the closeness of two points such as x and y. Since this closeness can be measured by the absolute value of their difference, a neighborhood of x can be defined as a set of the form where x R and > 0. Here, is some positive measure of closeness and can be referred to as the radius of the neighborhood. Neighborhoods are often used when describing the concepts of open and closed sets; hence, studying these sets is an aspect of a field known as point set topology. In essence, neighborhoods are open sets. With this in mind, neighborhoods are infinite as other neighborhoods have the ability to be inside each other. Real analysis provides a context in which we think of space and size quite differently, and neighborhoods are a perfect example of a different type of space.

Mathematical Modeling and Applications

Undamped Forcing and Resonance Beating
Harmonic oscillators are real world mechanical systems that when displaced from equilibrium will experience some type of restoring force that is equal to the displacement (this is explained more clearly by Hookes Law). The equation that will be given below represents a harmonic oscillator that is forced and undamped. Although it may not seem intuitive at first why one would study undamped harmonic oscillators since all systems of this type have some damping, it actually does provide insight into oscillators or other systems where the damping is small and provides a close approximation. There are many cases of undamped equations; however, one that is of particular interest is sinusoidal forcing. In this kind of forcing, something known as resonance occurs when the frequency of the forcing function approaches the natural frequency of the equation. The type of resonance that will be discussed below is a phenomenon known as beating. This occurs when the frequency of both the natural response and the forced response are approximately the same. Thus, consider the following undamped equation:

Mathematical Modeling and Applications Undamped Forcing and Resonance - Beating

The first step is to find the general solution of the differential equation. This is shown in steps (1), (2) and (3). To find it, we use the Method of Undetermined Coefficients. Part of the solution will be real and part imaginary; however, for this example, the focus will be on the real part of the solution with the forcing factor cos(wt). Once we have found the general solution, the next step is to determine the period and frequency of the beats . This is done using complex exponentials as is shown in the next slide.

Mathematical Modeling and Applications

(continued)
Using and as exponentials, we then use Eulers formula to think of the real part of our complex function. Finally, after manipulating exponents , we calculate the desired real solution and obtain the frequency and period of the beats. The small frequency and the long frequency are both present in the beating and are best represented by the illustration below. Note that the values below are not the same values from the equation we just demonstrated. This picture is simply to demonstrate what In a real world context, this beating is what you beating looks like. might hear should you be listening to a piano or to a guitar that may be out of tune. When an instrument (particularly guitar) is being tuned, you might recognize it as the wah-oo-wah-oo noise that often accompanies it. This is just one example of a form of resonance that can take place in a undamped forced physical system.

Mathematical Modeling and Applications

RSA Encryption
RSA encryption (named for its creators Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leornard Adleman) has been one of the most successful public key cryptosystems invented to this day. The RSA alogrithm is based on the difficulty of being able to factor large prime numbers. Its uses in the real world are plentiful as it is often used to protect data such as computers passwords, digital signatures and e-commerce. The algorithm works as follows: - The first step is to compute the public key needed for the algorithm by choosing two distinct prime numbers p and q. - Next, we compute the product of the numbers: n = pq. This value m is known as the public key because it is made accessible to the public, and it can also be referred to as the modulus of p and q. - The next step is to compute what is known as (n) = (p-1)(q-1). - Then we compute an integer e where it must be greater than 1 but less than (n) such that the greatest common divisor of e and (n) is 1. This integer e is another public key component of the cryptosystem.

Mathematical Modeling and Applications

(Continued)
Now, the next step in the RSA algorithm is to use the Euclidean algorithm to find the private key which we will call d. This integer is computed by the following formula: e d mod (n) = 1. Next, to encrypt the message, we use c = me(mod n) where the receiver already knows the public keys e and n. When the encrypted message is send back to the receiver by the sender, the receiver can only decrypt the message by using m = cd(mod n); however, the receiver must know the private key d or trying to decrypt the message it futile. The following is a simple example of the algorithm: Choose p = 5 and q = 11; hence, pq = 55. Finding (n) = (p-1)(q-1) = (4)(10) = 40. Since e must be relatively prime to (n) in order for it to be the key, then in this particular case, any key e that is not divisible by 2 or 5 will have a matching key d since the least common multiple of (p-1)(q-1) is 20. Hence, let e = 7. To compute d, we use (ed-1) mod (n) = 0 which produces the key d = 3. Choosing m = b = 2 as our plaintext message (or message to be encrypted), we use the formula c = me(mod n) which becomes c = 27(mod 55) = 18. To decrypt the ciphertext message (or message to be decrypted), we use the formula m = c d(mod n) which becomes m = 183(mod 55) = 2. This example illustrates the algorithm with very simple prime numbers; however, it is recommended today that the prime numbers be at least 2048 bits in length to ensure security. Factorizing large prime numbers is difficult and can take years. To date, the longest bit prime number that has been factorized was 768 bits long, and the factorization occurred in 2010. Due to its difficulty, the RSA algorithm has proven to be a secure way to protect online information.

Proofs
By contradiction
Proofs by contradiction sometimes allow us to draw conclusions about our statements in a much easier than way than by direct proofs. To illustrate a proof by contradiction, consider the following: For x,y R, prove that if x is a rational number (x Q) and y is an irrational number (y Q), then (x+y) is also irrational ((x+y) Q). Proof: Suppose that x Q and y Q. Also suppose that (x+y) Q. By the definition of a rational number, x Q means where a,b Z and b = 0. Also, (x+y) Q means where m,n Z and n = 0. Then, Since Z is closed under substraction, mb-an , nb Z and nb = 0. Hence, y Q. However, our assumption was that y Q so we have a contradiction (=> <=). Therefore, if x Q and y Q, then (x+y) Q. This proof would have been far more difficult had we needed to directly find how to prove that (x+y) is irrational since no concrete algebraic expressions can define irrational numbers like the rational numbers can be. Therefore, a proof by contradiction made this particular example far less difficult.

Proofs
Induction
Mathematical induction allows us to make statements about the natural numbers without having to verify the statement for each individual number which would prove impossible. Suppose that we want to prove the following statement regarding the natural numbers: To begin the proof, we establish are base case to prove that P(1) is true: Next is the induction step which will prove that the P(k) is true:

Thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n.

Proofs
The Archimedean Property
The Archimedean Property is a consequence of the Completeness Axiom (recall that the Completeness Axiom states that a non-empty subset of R that has an upper bound also has a supremum), and it claims that the natural numbers are unbounded above in R. Its proof depends on the completeness axiom and a contradiction. Thus to prove that N is not bounded above in R, we begin as follows: Suppose, to the contrary, that there is an upper bound on N.

Hence, the Archimedean Property is true based on the Completeness Axiom and a proof by contradiction.

Proofs
Sequence Convergence
One way to prove that a sequence converges is to use the definition of sequence convergence. This definition states that for each > 0, there exists a real number N such that for all n N, n > N implies that |sn-s| < . If the sequence converges to s, then s is the limit of sequence; if it does not, then the sequence diverges. This type of proof is popularly known as an -N proof. To demonstrate, prove that the sequence converges to 3. Proof:

Although a short proof, using the definition of sequence convergence provides a simple way to show that a sequence does indeed converge.