Vietnam War and Cold War, 1964-1970

Lyndon Johnson saw Southeast Asia as one of his lowest priorities More focused on civil rights, a war on poverty, and a wide range of measures designed to remake America into a Great Society Leonid Brezhnev had little interest in Southeast Asia More focused on consolidating his power and building his nations strength Little did the both of them know that Southeast Asia would become the focal point of the Cold War in the mid to late 1960s

The Struggle for Southeast Asia

Events in Southeast Asia had gone on independently of the Cold War, but since most of the movements/revolts were of communist nature the USSR supported them and the US opposed them Malaya- (1948) native communist party led an anti-British revolt Maoist orientation of the Malayan Communists led the Soviets to lose interest and the rebels were left on their own and eventually flamed out Philippines- (1946) President Manuel Roxas had driven the Huks underground where they formed the Peoples Liberation Army and were joined by the Philippine Communist party in 1948 Soviets remained uninterested because of strong US support for current Philippine leadership Nonetheless the Huks gained power by 1950 because of governmental ineptitude and their attractiveness from the peasantry US CIA threw its support to populist defense secretary Ramon Magsaysay Who was able to withstand the pressure from the Huks through popularity among the middle class and peasantry, massive US aid, and lack of Soviet or Chinese help

The Struggle for Southeast Asia

Indochina- (1941) Ho Chi Minh, Pham Van Dong, and Vo Nguyen Giap created the Vietminh at the May 1941 plenum of the Indochinese Communist party Ho Chi Minh had been the main instrument of Southeast Asian independence from the Japanese during WWII Supplied with arms and aid from the US Vietminh guerrilla units formed under the command of Giap (strong hatred of the French due to atrocities done to his family) Many of the troops who joined his unit were non-communists, but rallied to him as the only hope for liberation and independence Japanese troops never succumbed to the Vietminh during WWII- but were highly annoyed by them Japanese troops surrendered to Vietminh instead of the French in the region September 2, 1945- Ho Chi Minh addressed a rally of 400,000 people in Hanoi, proclaiming Vietnamese independence in an address deliberately modeled on the US Declaration of Independence

The Struggle for Southeast Asia

Ho had hoped for US backing, but Truman (being anticommunist) backed the French instead Indochina was then divided into two occupation zones North- nationalist China controlled South- Britain controlled The Brits allowed the French to move back into the south, while the Chinese civil war broke out and Chiang Kai-shek had to bring his troops back to China to help out Ho now hoped that the French would negotiate a deal rather than engage in a long colonial war Two months of talks resulted in the Ho-Sainteny Accords of March 6, 1946 France would recognize Vietnam as a free state with its own government, parliament, army, and finances Vietnam would become part of an Indochinese Federation and the French Union France would station 25,000 troops in the north until the end of 1952 Vietminh would end its guerrilla war in the south

The Struggle for Southeast Asia

The accords were doomed to failure as the French only had Sainteny sign in order to get their troops into the North in order to eventually destroy Vietnamese independence Ho agreed to the accords to buy time in which to consolidate his hold by destroying all opposition and to give Giap time to prepare his forces for battle 1946- incidents between French and Vietminh soldiers multiplied November 23, 1946- French warship bombed the Vietnamese quarter of the port of Haiphong, killing at least 6,000 and perhaps as many as 20,000 people December 19, 1946- Vietminh soldiers in Hanoi killed 37 Frenchmen, which caused the French to attack and take the city The First Indochina War had begun

The Struggle for Southeast Asia

Ho hoped for some form of international support, but none ever came US encouraged France to persevere in its anticommunist course Britain followed suit USSR, true to its ideals of spheres of influence, ignored the conflict in Indochina Chinese communists were too busy with their own civil war to be of any help Nonetheless, Ho and his army gave the French all they could handle and more 1952- territory under French control was smaller than in 1947 Vietminh greatly increased its military strength and began to conduct largescale offensive operations Ho remained steadfast in the use of guerrilla tactics as he was not prepared to face the larger French forces out in the open After the Chinese communists won their civil war, they sent substantial aid to Vietminh By 1952- Giap had a well-equipped regular army of 300,000 men with which to oppose 150,000 French and 300,000 colonial troops

The Struggle for Southeast Asia

Late 1953- French citizens are exasperated with the cost of suppressing Indochina 90,000 casualties and 1.6 trillion francs Also kept France weakened in Europe in terms of fighting-ready troops Economy was lagging behind even W. Germany Early 1953- Giap launched an offensive toward Laos to get the French stretched beyond their military capacity French garrison a town called Dienbienphu on the main road between Vietnam and Laos March 1954- the French troops (fewer than 20,000) are surrounded by 40,000 Vietminh Giap concealed large numbers of antiaircraft guns and howitzers in caves beneath the dense foliage around the city- to cut down any aircraft coming into the airstrip and shut it down March 13, 1954- Giap attacked and was assured of victory over the French in just five days Dienbienphu fell to the Vietminh by May 7 as the Western Allies debated what to do about the situation- with Ike not willing to commit troops to aid the French in Indochina

The Struggle for Southeast Asia

June 17, 1954- socialist premier Pierre Mendes-France threatened to resign if a peace settlement were not concluded by July 20 Geneva- Mendes-France, Molotov, and Zhou Enlai worked out a plan to divide Indochina into four states North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia North Vietnam- ruled by Vietminh South Vietnam- democracy led by anticommunist politician Ngo Dinh Diem Divided at the 17th parallel Laos and Cambodia would become independent and neutral nations under coalition governments Vietminh foreign minister Pham Van Dong reluctantly had to agree July 20, 1954- the First Indochina War ended with the signing of the Geneva Accords France got more than they could have hoped for, but at the cost of their empire Ho Chi Minh felt betrayed by China and the USSR China was the real winner as they achieved a split Vietnam Would rather have seen France control the region as the US would not intervene in such a way as they did in Korea, nonetheless, a divided southern neighbor

The Cold War in Vietnam and Laos

Ho Chi Minh had gained enormous respect by expelling the French Ngo Dinh Diem was going to have to prove that the government was better off in his hands than in Hos Diem did not see the need for drastic social reforms to destroy the vestiges of French colonialism Lacked support from the masses (and the police and the army) to begin with and this made him even less popular among the people Diem denounced the Geneva Accords as he and the US knew that an election at that time (1956) would end in a Vietminh victory Diems regime entered the first of three stages 1954 to 55- maintained his position of power (miracle) 1955 to 57- his government created a strong belief in its capability for constructive action 1957 to 63- disenchantment with Diem grew, resulting in a consistent erosion of his support

The Cold War in Vietnam and Laos

1957- USSR suggested a permanent partition of Vietnam to the UN US rejected the offer- not willing to recognize the communist government in the North Result was South Vietnam fighting a war for the next 15 years and losing Ho resisted armed attacks against Diem for several years, suggesting the time was not yet ripe for insurrection 1957- Mao Zedong gave his East Wind over West Wind speech in Moscow calling for communist insurgencies Influenced Ho to go on the offensive against South Vietnam- as he saw itthe only way to reunify Vietnam (especially under his/communist rule) 1959- Ho authorized the creation of the Viet Cong (VC) guerrilla units in the South 1960- Ho creates the National Liberation Front (NLF) in the South US supported Diem against the VC even though he was just as much a dictator as Ho (he was just anticommunist) Both North and South Vietnam were one-party states, with a few opposition parties as window dressing, secret police, rigged elections, ubiquitous propaganda, and political reeducation camps Both differed in their economic and social systems

The Cold War in Vietnam and Laos

Creation of the VC had a huge impact on neighboring Laos as the only road or supply line to the VC ran through Laos (Ho Chi Minh Trail) Laos was to remain neutral, but easier said than done Laos, from the early 1950s, had been divided Most of the country was under the sway of Prince Souvanna Phouma Souvanna Phoumas half-brother Prince Souvanouvong (a communist) controlled two northern provinces with his version of the Vietminh known as the Pathet Lao 1960- US favorite Phoumi Nosavan broke a US-sponsored cease-fire and captured Vientiane Pushed Souvanna Phouma into the arms of the Pathet Lao 1961- a communist counterattack routed Phoumis forces and opened all of Laos to attack Kennedy was now faced with a situation where all of Laos would fall to communist forces and open the ability for North Vietnam to outflank South Vietnam Suggested military action Joint Chiefs of Staff (gun shy due to Korea) insisted that military commanders of any US troops in Asia must be able to use nuclear weapons Kennedy dispatched Averell Harriman (former ambassador to London and Moscow) to seek a compromise in Laos

The Cold War in Vietnam and Laos

Harriman quickly reached several conclusions
Neutralist course was the only one that might enable the US to avoid war in Laos Khrushchev did not want war in Laos
Thought it would fall to communism anyway and Berlin was more important to him

Zhou Enlai did not want to risk another Korea, but believed that the US didnt want to either Ho wanted a communist Laos, but not at the cost of provoking US or Chinese intervention

The Cold War in Vietnam and Laos

Kennedy decided to back Souvanna Phoumas neutralist approach in hopes of achieving a negotiated settlement May 1962- breakthrough came when Pathet Lao pressure led Kennedy to send the Seventh Fleet to the Gulf of Thailand and US ground forces to Thailand Souvanna Phouma initiated direct talks Setting a June 15 deadline for success USSR, China, and Vietnam now believed that a settlement was less risky than continued military pressure June 11, 1962- Souvanna Phouma announced the formation of a government of national unity July 23, 1962- Agreements were signed in Geneva reaffirming Laotian neutrality and setting a schedule for removal of all foreign forces

The Cold War in Vietnam and Laos

US aid to South Vietnam was increasing markedly Kennedys administration kept elevating the number of American military advisors from 300 in January 1961 to 16,000 by the summer of 1963 1962 Strategic Hamlet Program had little effect on the insurgency Diem angered the Buddhists when it was found out that he had been funneling government posts, land, and power to the Catholic minority United Buddhist Church led by a nationalist monk named Thich Tri Quang staged a series of provocations aimed at uniting South Vietnamese nationalists to overthrow Diem and return to traditional Vietnamese values by expelling the US Buddhist hunger strikes in May led the regime to declare martial law in several places June 11, 1963- a Buddhist monk knelt on a Saigon street, had himself drenched with gasoline, and committed suicide by lighting a match Followed by other monks over the next few days Diems sister-in-law offered to furnish fuel for the next barbecue Kennedy insisted that Diem compromise Caving in to US pressure would have given him less credibility among the people and would have given the Buddhists an upper hand August 20, 1963- Diem imposes martial law nationwide and suspends all civil liberties

The Cold War in Vietnam and Laos

Fall, 1963- US ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge and CIA operative Lucien Conein conveyed Americas wishes to certain key South Vietnamese military leaders (assassination plot) Diem found out and concocted a counterplot A phony revolt that would result in the murders of Lodge, Conein, and the military plotters Diems closest military advisor (who was to carry out his phony plot) was actually part of the plot against him November 1, 1963- the government was overthrown Diem and his brother, assured of safe conduct by the rebels, were arrested and murdered (officiallyaccidental suicide) A military dictatorship now ruled in Saigon Johnson replaced Kennedy three weeks later and decisively took action to defeat the communists Ho was looking for a fight too- not in the mood for negotiations

The US in Vietnam
Ho was annoyed by Khrushchevs unwillingness to aid in their struggle They began to tilt toward the CCP in late 1963 Mao Zedong suggested to Ho that he fight a war of attrition North Vietnam and the US would be tied down to a long, expensive conflict Gave Mao a way to fight the US without risking a repeat of Korea, where US technology led to the deaths of a million Chinese Ho distrusted Maos advice and was reluctant to alienate the Soviets March 28, 1964- Lao Dong Party (communists of North Vietnam) opted to fully support revolution in the South by sending in regular units of the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) Realized the need for Chinese arms and the tilt toward China remained August 1964- first NVA troops reach the south

The US in Vietnam
US Congressional approval to bomb North Vietnam and mine its harbors to cut off its support for the VC was obtained through the approval of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Following an alleged attack by North Vietnamese patrol boats on US surveillance ships in the Gulf of Tonkin Authorized the president to take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any memberof the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requesting assistance in defense of its freedom In other wordsa blank check for US military action Direct US involvement in Vietnam posed a dilemma to China Mao supported the idea that feared preparing for war against the US because it would delay the revolutionizing of Chinese society Mao depicted US weapons as paper tigers and must rely on its own revolutionary spirit for survival Late 1965- China detached itself from Vietnam and other external affairs in an internal upheaval known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution Although they continued to support the Vietminh with arms and encouragement, but nothing else

The US in Vietnam
February 1965- VC raid on US military advisors at Pleiku convinced Johnson to initiate bombing Engaged in Operation ROLLING THUNDER A systematic bombing campaign which would continue until 1968 Bombings did not reduce Vietminh morale, only inspired them to fight harder Late 1964- Soviet and Chinese arms reach the VC in the South via the Ho Chi Minh Trail Rebel threat to air base at Danang led Johnson to grant the request of General Westmoreland for two battalions of marines Once troops were committed, Johnson would find it hard to resist the request for more and more By the end of 1965- US troop levels had reached 184,300 with another 200,000 on the way Johnson had committed the US to a land war in Asia while misleading the American public as to the scope of the commitment Would foster the antiwar protests of the late 1960s

The US in Vietnam
Limited war in Vietnam carried all the liabilities of limited war in Korea Significant US casualties Stalemate with no prospects for quick victory Sense that the military was being unduly restricted by civilian politicians Easier to fight total warfare than limited Lack of clear war aims plagued US leadership Attempted to fight a conventional war against guerrilla tactics Knew that they had to kill enough North Vietnamese to bring them to the negotiation table More than likely US killed over a million North Vietnamese between 1961 and 1975 Lao Dong Party believed that it could raise at least 250,000 new recruits each year and that America simply couldnt kill that many The US goal was fuzzy and probably unattainable

The US in Vietnam
Ho Chi Minh was ready to drag out the war for as long as necessary as he saw it not as stalemate, but an endless chain of small encounters designed to weaken Americas will There was no need for him to venture to the bargaining table to negotiate- he would wear the Americans down until they quitwhich is exactly what happened

Escalation without Victory, 1965-67

Factors for the Vietminh resistance The simplicity of its goal- to reunify Vietnam by expelling the Americans and conquering the South North Vietnams economy could not be destroyed by bombing Agrarian nation with few industrial areas Weapons were produced and furnished by its allies Trucks and AK-47s from China Tanks, planes, and surface-to-air missiles from Russia The NVA followed the same strategy it had used against Franceemploy guerrilla tactics against a superior foe until you can entice that foe into a situation where you have the advantage Giap knew how to fight set-piece battles and knew that he would lose them unless he could select the proper time, place, and conditions (US generals would not fight like him as they were trained on the plains of Europe in the 1940s and the hills of Korea in the 1950s)

Escalation without Victory, 1965-67

March 8, 1965- US ground troops come ashore at Danang Vietminh was much better prepared and much more focused on attainable objectives than the US realized Almost simultaneously the antiwar movement broke out in America Teach-Ins broke out all over America March 24, 1965- University of Michigan Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) May 15, 1965- nation-wide Teach-In Occurred in all 50 states Johnsons later draft calls and increased casualties turned the antiwar movement into the most extensive grass-roots protest in American history November 1965- US were ambushed at Ia Drang Valley 240 US deaths vs. 1,800 NVA deaths and probably that many casualties NVA generals debated over conventional vs. guerrilla tactics and made adjustments in which they would avoid large battles as such The US under Westmoreland did not adjust and US military fortunes began to turn for the worse December 25, 1965- Johnson suspends ROLLING THUNDER to allow the Vietminh to discuss a negotiated settlement Received no response and resumed bombing on January 31, 1966

Escalation without Victory, 1965-67

Senatorial hearings on the war, the resignation of the National Security Advisor, an attempted repeal of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, civilian protests, rising casualties, no real end of the war in site All led to one of the most tumultuous times in American history Baby Boomers (those born after WWII) were being drafted and were not convinced of its value or its morality Some enlisted, some were drafted reluctantly, some sought escape in student deferments or conscientious objector status, some enlisted in the reserve forces to avoid combat, a few fled to foreign lands, many took part in antiwar protests April 1966- Johnson called on Ho to make peace in return for $5 billion in aid and a huge development program Ho responded with silence May 1, 1966- US bombed VC camps in Cambodia for the first time and the demonstrations at home continued

Escalation without Victory, 1965-67

Early 1967- US troop strength had risen to 385,300 6,000 deaths in 1966 Westmoreland was looking for a military victory but could not find a strategy to cope with Giaps guerrilla warfare Defense Secretary McNamara suggested that Johnson deescalate and seek a peace settlement McNamara was eased out of office in 1967 September 1967- Johnson offered the San Antonio Formula The bombing of North Vietnam would stop as soon as talks began Vietminh would not listen and the war dragged on Bombings of the North intensified as well as aerial defoliation of the South Carcinogenic Agent Orange was sprayed over jungles throughout the South to deprive the enemy of cover B-52s dropped enough bombs to resemble an atomic blast Colossal body counts were reported by the Vietminh But they still wouldnt back down

Escalation without Victory, 1965-67

Summer 1967- Johnson meets Premier Kosygin in New Jersey, but nothing comes of it as Ho Chi Minh did not answer to the Soviets or the Chinese April 1967- antiwar sentiment was growing to an all-time high A protest in New York drew over 100,000 people Six months later 50,000 marched on the Pentagon Advantage for the Johnson administration was that they were not united except for their insistence to an end of the war Liberals saw the war as a mistake, radicals opposed capitalism, and pacifists hated violence Johnson responded by questioning his critics patriotism and trying to prove that the war was being won End of 1967- troop strength reached 485,600 and the death toll for that year was 9,377 bringing the total for the war up to 16,021 But US intelligence stated that VC control in the South was growing nonetheless

The Tet Offensive

Tet- the Lunar New Year (main holiday of the year 1968) A truce had been observed so that both sides might celebrate in peace January 21, 1968- nine days before Tet, the NVA laid siege to a remote US outpost at Khe Sanh Only done to get the US troops away from southern cities Westmoreland fell for it and redeployed forces toward Khe Sanh as he assumed that southern cities would be safe during Tet January 30, 1968 (first day of Tet)- VC invaded thirteen provincial capitals, captured the ancient capital of Hue, and used nineteen commandos to attack and briefly occupy parts of the US embassy in Saigon

The Tet Offensive

Late February 1968- order was restored US portrayed the Tet Offensive was a VC defeat VC lost their best people, and the North Vietnamese who replaced them turned what had been a largely indigenous southern movement into a subsidiary of the NVA VC casualties were horrendous and they failed to hold any of the cities they had attacked Giap later stated that he had hoped to spark uprisings throughout South Vietnam by showing that the US couldnt protect its people This goal was not attained Did succeed in influencing public opinion (bonus side product) Tet became Johnsons political death knell It confirmed two key groups in their convictions Antiwar movement gained steam as Tet verified the belief that US soldiers had to fight this war with one arm tied behind their back Turned Senator Eugene McCarthys candidacy into a reality as Democrats were tired of Johnsons handling of the war

The Tet Offensive

February 27, 1968- Westmoreland made public a request for 206,000 more troops Shock to the nation was worse than the news of the Tet Offensive US citizens began to realize that no end of the war was in site Newsman Walter Cronkite observed that the war was likely to end in stalemate and also that the war could last a century March 12, 1968- McCarthy won New Hampshire primary March 16, 1968- Robert Kennedy throws his hat into the political ring as another Democratic candidate That same day, US troops massacred nearly 500 women and children in a remote village called My Lai (news of which was hidden for twenty months) March 26, 1968- Johnson assembled the Senior Advisory Group on Vietnam Headed by Philip Habib and Dean Acheson Both overwhelmingly advised US disengagement from the war March 31, 1968- Johnson addressed thenation and announced that he would not seek another term VP Hubert Humphrey entered the race as Johnsons heir

Nixon Takes Command

April 1968- seemed as war was about to be over, but half of the US death toll was still to come April 4, 1968- Martin Luther King, Jr. was killed May 12, 1968- Peace talks opened in Paris No real progress was made May 1968- student and working-class riots nearly toppled de Gaulles regime in France June 5, 1968- Robert Kennedy was killed moments after defeating McCarthy and Humphrey in the California presidential primary August 1968- USSR invaded Czechoslovakia to destroy Alexander Dubceks reformist government October 1968- Mexican President Gustavo Diaz Ordazs troops opened fire on a crowd of demonstrators and killed more than 300 Two weeks before the start of the Summer Olympics in Mexico City

Nixon Takes Command

Former Vice-President Richard Nixon won the Republican nomination in July, narrowly defeating California governor Ronald Reagan Humphrey prevailed over McCarthy for the Democratic nomination Democratic National Convention in Chicago that year turned violent with antiwar protests Seriously weakened the moral credibility of both the antiwar movement and the Chicago police and damaging the Democratic Party Humphrey did not mention the willingness to end the war until September 1968 Johnson tried to help out by halting ROLLING THUNDER on October 31 Nixon held on and very narrowly won the election End of 1968- troop strength was at 536,000 and deaths that year totaled 14,589 (highest of the war to that point) April 30, 1969- US troop strength peaked at 543,300 Nixon had no intention of escalating the war, nor did he envision a quick pullout Not wanting to be the first president to lose a warhe wanted to pullout gradually and pump into South Vietnam tons of war materiel

Nixon Takes Command

This new policy toward the war was called the Nixon Doctrine National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger stated that troop pullouts deprived him of negotiating leverage Defense Secretary Melvin Laird coined the term Vietnamization to describe the execution of the Nixon Doctrine in Southeast Asia Antiwar protestors saw this as a delay tactic and South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu considered it a betrayal of US commitment July 1969- CIA employed the Phoenix program to infiltrate techniques to cripple the VCs operations through the unmasking and killing of approximately 60,000 VC agents in the South Ho Chi Minh died in September 1969 Had no impact on North Vietnams bargaining posture October 15, 1969- nationwide moratorium demonstrations November 15, 1969- huge march on Washington November 16, 1969- New York Times published the first accounts of the March 1968 My Lai massacre January 1970- troop strength was reduced to 475,200, total US deaths now numbered over 40,000

Nixon Takes Command

Nixons impatience led to a widening of the war Throughout the 1960s, NVA and VC units had used the Ho Chi Minh Trail and used Cambodia and Laos as refuge from US troops who were told not to engage the enemy in these countries March 1970- a military coup deposed Cambodias neutralist Prince Sihanouk, replacing him with pro-US general Lon Nol US at once pressured Lon Nol to expel the NVA and VC forces April 30, 1970- Nixon announced a US invasion of Cambodia to close down the camps and supply routes Now officially begins the Second Indochina War US campuses erupted in protest Ohio National Guard fired on one such demonstration at Kent State killing four students and sending ripples of revulsion across the nation Several more students were killed at Jackson State in Mississippi that same week Many colleges cancelled classes and exams June 30, 1970- US operations in Cambodia ended Six months later Congress prohibited the use of US combat troops in Laos and Cambodia Ho Chi Minh Trail was still open and US forces were still mired in South Vietnam Nixon and Kissinger increasingly placed their hopes on dtente with China and Russia hoping that these two nations could help them end the war