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Cellular concept - frequency reuse -

cochannel interference
adjacent channel interference - power
control for reducing interference

improving capacity in cellular systems -
cell splitting - sectoring
hand off strategies - channel assignment
strategies - call blocking in cellular
networks
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Fundamental concepts of spread spectrum systems -
pseudo noise sequence -performance of direct
sequence spread spectrum systems - analysis of direct
sequence spread spectrum systems - the processing
gain and anti jamming margin - frequency hopped
spread spectrum systems - time hopped spread
spectrum systems - synchronization of spread spectrum
systems
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Cellular Communication: Cellular Networks-
Multiple Access: FDM/TDM/FDMA/TDMA- Spatial
reuse- Co-channel interference Analysis- Hand
over Analysis- Erlang Capacity Analysis- Spectral
efficiency and Grade of Service- Improving
capacity - Cell splitting and sectoring.
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Spread spectrum and CDMA: Overview of CDMA
systems: Direct sequence and frequency hoped
systems-spreading codes-code synchronization-
Channel estimation-power control-Multiuser
detection- Spread Spectrum Multiple Access-
CDMA Systems- Interference Analysis for
Broadcast and Multiple Access Channels- Capacity
of cellular CDMA networks- Reverse link power
control- Hard and Soft hand off strategies.
Interference and System Capacity
Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance
of cellular radio

Sources of Interference
Mobile in the same cell
Other BS transmissions in the same frequency band

Non-cellular interference ( A non-cellular system which leaks
energy into the cellular frequency band.)

In Urban areas more severe due to larger RF noise floor
and the large number of BSs and mobiles.
Interference
Effect of interference
Voice channels: Cross Talk
Control channels: missed / blocked calls
Types of Interference
Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
Interference
Co-Channel Interference
In a given area, there are several cells that use the
same frequencies (due to re-use). These are called co-
channel cells and interference from these is termed as
co-channel interference.

How to reduce co-channel interference?
Increase Power???????
Physically separate the co-channel cells to provide
sufficient isolation.



Analysis of CCI
Assume
Size of each cell is same
BSs transmit same power
CCI becomes independent of the transmit
power and a function of the radius of the cell
(R) and the distance between centres of co-
channel cells (D)
D/R = co-channel reuse ratio = Q
If Q increases, interference decreases

The CC re-use ratio in turn depends on
the cluster size.
For hexagonal cell geometry
Q=D/R=(3N)
1/2

Small Q => small N => higher capacity
Large Q => improves transmission quality
due to lower interference.
If N is small => higher co-channel
interference
TRADEOFF Essence of System Design!

Smaller N greater capacity
Co-channel cells for 7-cell reuse
Propagation measurements shows that average
received power (P
r
) at any point decays as a
power of distance of separation (d) between Tx
and Rx.



P
0
= received power at a close-in reference point in
the far field region of the antenna at a small
distance d
0
from the transmitting antenna.
n- Path loss exponent
n
r o
o
d
P P
d

=
| |
|
\ .
Let i
0
be the total number of co-channel interfering cells,
then signal-to-interference ratio for forward channel





0
1
i
i
i
S S
I
I
=
=

S - signal power from the desired BS

I
i
- Interference power caused by the ith interfering co-
channel cell BS


When the transmit power of each BS is equal and the path
loss exponent is the same throughout the coverage area




0 0
1 1
( )
n
i i
n
i i
i i
S S R
I
I D

= =
= =

D
i
is the distance of the ith interferer from the mobile

S - signal power from the desired BS
I
i
- Interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell
BS


When the transmit power of each BS is equal and the path
loss exponent is the same throughout the coverage area




0 0
1 1
( )
n
i i
n
i i
i i
S S R
I
I D

= =
= =

D
i
is the distance of the ith interferer from the mobile

S - signal power from the desired BS
I
i
- Interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell
BS

Considering the first layer of interfering cells, if all the
interfering BSs are equidistant from the desired BS
and if this distance is equal to the distance D
between cell centres




( )
0 0
3
n
n
D
N
S
R
I i i
| |
|
\ .
= =
Let i
0
be the total number of co-channel interfering cells, then
signal-to-interference ratio for forward channel




( )
0 0
1 1
0 0
( )
3
n
i i
n
i i
i i
n
n
S S R
I
I D
D
N
R
i i

= =
= =
| |
|
\ .
= =

S - signal power from the desired BS
I
i
- Interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel
cell BS

Co-channel cells for 7-cell reuse
Analysis of CCI based on approximate
distance between mobile and co-channel cell
centres




4
4 4 4
4 4 4
2( ) 2( ) 2
1
2( 1) 2( 1) 2

=
+ + +
=
+ + +
S R
I D R D R D
Q Q Q
For N= 7, Q =4.58 and the worst case S/I is 49.56 (17 dB).
For the exact analysis it is 17.8 dB.

For US AMPS cellular system sufficient
voice quality is provided when S/I ratio
is 18 dB
To design a cellular system for proper
performance in the worst case, it would
be necessary to increase N to the next
larger size.
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The Co-channel interference determines
the link performance , which in turn
dictates the frequency re-use plan and
overall capacity of cellular system.
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Example
If an S/I ratio of 15 dB is required for
satisfactory forward channel performance of a
cellular system, what is the frequency re-use
factor and cluster size that should be used for
maximum capacity if the path loss exponent
is n=4 ? Assume that there are six co-channel
cells in the first tier and all of them are at the
same distance from the mobile
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Solution
If N=7 , then
23
( ) ( )
4
0
3 3(7)
75.3
6
10log(75.3) 18.66
= = =
= =
n
N
S
I i
dB dB
Adjacent Channel Interference
Interference resulting from signals which are
adjacent to the frequency to the desired signal

Why do we have ACI

Imperfect receiver filtering allows nearby
frequencies to leak into the passband.

More severe if adjacent channel user is
transmitting close to subscribers receiver

Near far effect
Case 1:

An adjacent channel transmitter transmits in
very close range to a subscribers receiver
while the receiver tries to receive a BS on
the desired channel.
A nearby transmitter captures the receiver of
the subscriber.

Near-Far EFFECT
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Near far effect
Case 2:
Near-far effect occurs when a mobile close to
a BS transmits on a channel close to one
being used by a weak mobile.
The BS may have difficulty in discriminating
the bleedover caused by the close adjacent
channel mobile.

Near - Far EFFECT
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Minimization of ACI
By careful Filtering and Channel
Assignments

Assign channels to a cell keeping
frequency separation between them as
large as possible
Prevent secondary source of ACI by avoiding
the use of adjacent channels in neighbouring
cell sites.

Minimization of ACI
By careful Filtering and Channel
Assignments
A cell need not be assigned channels
which are adjacent in frequency.
keep frequency separation between them
as
large as possible
Prevent secondary source of ACI by avoiding
the use of adjacent channels in neighbouring
cell sites.

Minimization of ACI
Sequentially assign successive channels in
the frequency band to different cells
If N is the cluster size , it is possible to
separate adjacent channels by N bandwidths
A cell need not be assigned channels
which are adjacent in frequency.
Prevent secondary source of ACI by avoiding
the use of adjacent channels in neighbouring
cell sites.

CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT STRATEGIES

For effficient utilization of the radio spectrum a
frequency reuse sheme that is consistent with the
objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing
interference is required.

Fixed Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice
channels. Any call attempt within the cell can only be
served by the unused channels in that particular cell. All
the channels occupied-> call block .
Borrowing strategy cell borrows channels from
neighbouring cells. MSC supervises such borrowing and
ensures that this does not interfere with the calls in
progress in the donor cell.


CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT STRATEGIES

Dynamic No permanent allocation of voice channels to
any cell. For a call attempt within a cell , the BS places a
request on MSC for a channel. The channel is allocated
following an algorithm. It takes into account 1. Likelyhood
of future blocking
2. frequency use of candidate channel
3.the reuse distance 4. other cost functions.

MSC should collect real time data on channel occupancy,
traffic distribution, Radio signal Strength indications. This
increases the storage and computational load.
Advantages
Increased channel utilization
Decreased probability of blocked call.
Handoff must be
1. successful
2. infrequent
3. Imperceptible to the
user

Handoffs the basics
Improper Handoff
Handoffs the basics