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Chapter 4 Measurement and Scaling: Fundamentals and Comparative Scaling

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Outline
1) Overview

2) Measurement and Scaling

3) Primary Scales of Measurement i. ii. Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale

iii. Interval Scale iv. Ratio Scale 4) A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

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Outline
5) Comparative Scaling Techniques

6) Non-Comparative Scaling
7) Criterion for good measurement

8) Threats to reliability

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Measurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules. One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured. The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. Rules must not change over objects or time.

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Measurement and Scaling

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.

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Scale Nominal

Primary Scales of Measurement

Numbers Assigned to Runners Rank Order of Winners
Third place Second place First place Finish
7 8 3

Ordinal

Finish

Interval

Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale

Time to Finish, in Seconds

8.2

9.1

9.6

Ratio

15.2

14.1

13.4

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Primary Scales of Measurement Nominal Scale

The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects. The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting. Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode.

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Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale
No. Store

Ordinal Scale
Preference Rankings

Interval Scale
Preference Ratings 1-7 5 7 4 6 7 5 4 5 6 2 11-17 15 17 14 16 17 15 14 15 16 12

Ratio Scale
$ spent last 3 months

1. Lord & Taylor 2. Macys 3. Kmart 4. Richs 5. J.C. Penney 6. Neiman Marcus 7. Target 8. Saks Fifth Avenue 9. Sears 10.Wal-Mart

7 2 8 3 1 5 9 6 4 10

0 200 0 100 250 35 0 100 0 10

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Primary Scales of Measurement Ordinal Scale

A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less. Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships between the objects. In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median.

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Primary Scales of Measurement Interval Scale

Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. It permits comparison of the differences between objects. The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary. Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the properties of the scale. It is meaningful to take ratios of scale values. Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.

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Primary Scales of Measurement Ratio Scale

Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. It has an absolute zero point. It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is a positive constant, are allowed. All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

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Primary Scales of Measurement

Scale Nominal Basic Characteristics Numbers identify & classify objects Common Examples Social Security nos., numbering of football players Nos. indicate the Quality rankings, relative positions rankings of teams of objects but not in a tournament the magnitude of differences between them Differences Temperature between objects (Fahrenheit) Zero point is fixed, Length, weight ratios of scale values can be compared Marketing Permissible Statistics Examples Descriptive Inferential Brand nos., store Percentages, Chi-square, types mode binomial test Preference Percentile, rankings, market median position, social class Rank-order correlation, Friedman ANOVA

Ordinal

Interval Ratio

Attitudes, opinions, index Age, sales, income, costs

Range, mean, standard Geometric mean, harmonic mean

Productmoment Coefficient of variation

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A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Scaling Techniques Noncomparative Scales

Comparative Scales

Paired Comparison

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Q-Sort and Other Procedures

Continuous Itemized Rating Scales Rating Scales

Likert

Semantic Differential

Stapel

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A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

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Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected. Same known reference points for all respondents. Easily understood and can be applied. Involve fewer theoretical assumptions. Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.

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Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

Ordinal nature of the data Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.

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Comparative Scaling Techniques Paired Comparison Scaling

A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature. Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling technique. With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired comparison data to a rank order.

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Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired Comparisons

Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of
shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use. Head & Pert Recording Form: Jhirmack Finesse Vidal
Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Sassoon Head & Shoulders Pert Number of Times Preferredb
aA

0 1a 1 0 1 3 1 0 1 2

Sassoon Shoulders 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 1

0 0 1 0 1

1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.

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Paired Comparison Selling

The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumers purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke. A paired comparison taste test

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Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.

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Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling

Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

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Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling

Form
Brand 1. Crest 2. Colgate Rank Order _________ _________

3. Aim
4. Gleem 5. Macleans 6. Ultra Brite

_________
_________ _________ _________

7. Close Up
8. Pepsodent 9. Plus White 10. Stripe

_________
_________ _________ _________

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Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling

Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.

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Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale

Instructions

On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

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Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale

Form
Attribute 1. Mildness 2. Lather 3. Shrinkage 4. Price 5. Fragrance 6. Packaging 7. Moisturizing 8. Cleaning Power Sum

Average Responses of Three Segments

Segment I
8 2 3 53 9 7 5 13 100

Segment II
2 4 9 17 0 5 3 60 100

Segment III
4 17 7 9 19 9 20 15 100

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A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Scaling Techniques Noncomparative Scales

Comparative Scales

Paired Comparison

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Q-Sort and Other Procedures

Continuous Itemized Rating Scales Rating Scales

Likert

Semantic Differential

Stapel

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Continuous Rating Scale

Continuous rating scale (also called the graphic rating scale) - respondents rate items by placing a mark on a line. The line is usually labeled at each end. There are sometimes a series of numbers, called scale points, (say, from zero to 100) under the line. Scoring and codification is difficult.

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Continuous Rating Scale Example

Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
How would you rate Sears as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best Version 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Version 3 Neither good Very good nor bad Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Very bad

100

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Likert Scale
Likert scale - Respondents are asked to indicate the amount of agreement or disagreement (from strongly agree to strongly disagree) on a five- or seven-point scale. The same format is used for multiple questions.

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Likert Scale Example

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither Agree agree nor disagree 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 Strongly agree

1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 2. Sears has poor in-store service. 3. I like to shop at Sears.

1 1 1

5 5 5

The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calculated.

When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.

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Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. SEARS IS: Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or lefthand sides without reading the labels. Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.

A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged 2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm

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3) Uncomfortable 4) Dominating 5) Thrifty 6) Pleasant 7) Contemporary 8) Organized 9) Rational 10) Youthful 11) Formal 12) Orthodox 13) Complex 14) Colorless 15) Modest

:---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain

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Stapel scale
This is a unipolar ten-point rating scale. ranges from +5 to -5 and has no neutral zero point.

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Stapel Scale Example

The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS
+5 +4 +3 +2 +1 HIGH QUALITY -1 -2 -3 -4X -5 +5 +4 +3 +2X +1 POOR SERVICE -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.

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Thurstone scale
Thurstone scale - This is a scaling technique that incorporates the intensity structure among indicators.

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Thurstone example
For our example focus on developing an AIDS attitude scale, we might generate statements like the following:
people get AIDS by engaging in immoral behavior you can get AIDS from toilet seats AIDS is the wrath of God anybody with AIDS is either gay or a junkie AIDS is an epidemic that affects us all people with AIDS are bad people with AIDS are real people AIDS costs the public too much AIDS is something the other guy gets living with AIDS is impossible children cannot catch AIDS AIDS is a death sentence 70 statements (Lets Assume)

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Thrustone Exaple

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Thrustone Example

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Thrustone Scale Final Form

1. People with AIDS are bad people. Agree Disagree 2.Because AIDS is preventable, we should focus our resources on prevention instead of curing. Agree Disagree 3.People with AIDS deserve what they got. Agree Disagree 4. Aids affects us all. Agree Disagree 5.People with AIDS should be treated just like everybody else. Agree 6. AIDS will never happen to me. Agree Disagree Disagree

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Thermometer Scale Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers by
coloring in the thermometer.

Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations

Form: Like very much Dislike very much

100 75 50 25 0

Smiling Face Scale Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie
Doll.

Form:

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales Figure 9.1

Jovan Musk for Men is
Extremely good Very good Good Bad Very bad Extremely bad

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Jovan Musk for Men is

Extremely good Very good Good Somewhat good Bad Very bad

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Criterion for good measurement

Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar. - Test-retest reliability - Equivalent form reliability - Internal consistency

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Reliability
In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered identical sets of scale items at two different times and the degree of similarity between the two measurements is determined. In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent forms of the scale are constructed and the same respondents are measured at two different times, with a different form being used each time.

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Reliability
Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to which different parts of a summated scale are consistent in what they indicate about the characteristic being measured. In split-half reliability, the items on the scale are divided into two halves and the resulting half scores are correlated. The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting the scale items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally indicates unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability

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Validity
Validity

- Face validity - Content validity - Criterion validity - Construct validity

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Validity
Content validity/Face validity is a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the content of a scale represents the measurement task at hand. Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs as expected in relation to other variables selected (criterion variables) as meaningful criteria.

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Validity
Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is, in fact, measuring. Construct validity includes convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity. Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates positively with other measures of the same construct. Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to differ. Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale correlates in theoretically predicted ways with measures of different but related constructs.

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Criterion for good measurement

Sensitivity Generalizibility Relevance = Validity x Reliability

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Sources of Measurement Errors

Respondent Associated Errors
Non-response errors & Response Bias

Instrument Associated Errors Situational Errors Measurer as Error Source NB:These might act as threat to reliability

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Threats to Reliability
AMBIGUITY -- when correlation is taken for causation

APPREHENSION -- when people are scared to respond to your study

DEMORALIZATION -- when people get bored with your measurements DIFFUSION -- when people figure out your test and start mimicking symptoms HISTORY -- when some critical event occurs between pretest and posttest INADEQUATE OPERATIONALIZATION -- unclear definitions

INSTRUMENTATION -- when the researcher changes the measuring device

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Threats to Reliability
INTERACTION -- when confounding treatments or influences are cooccuring

MATURATION -- when people change or mature over the research period

MONO-OPERATION BIAS - when using only one exemplar MORTALITY -- when people die or drop out of the research REGRESSION TO THE MEAN -- a tendency toward middle scores RIVALRY -- the John Henry Effect, when groups compete to score good

SELECTION -- when volunteers are used, people self-select themselves

SETTING -- something about the setting or context contaminates the study

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The End