Chapter 7

Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Burning

is an example of a chemical

change. When a substance undergoes a chemical change, a chemical reaction occurs.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Equations
A

way of describing a change is to state what is present before and after the change. A chemical reaction tells you the substances present before and after the reaction. In a chemical reaction, the substances that undergo change are called reactants. The new substances formed as a result of the change are called products.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Using Equations to Represent Reactions

During

a chemical reaction, reactants change into products. Reactants Products To describe the burning of charcoal: carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide. Writing the formulas for the reactants and product gives a chemical equation: C + 02 C02

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Conservation of Mass
During

chemical reactions, the mass of the products is always equal to the mass of the reactants. This principle established by Lavoisier is known as the law of conservation of mass. It states that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Balancing Equations
In

order to show that mass is conserved during a reaction the chemical equation must be balanced. A chemical equation can be balanced by changing the coefficients (the numbers that appear before the formulas). Changing the coefficient, changes the amount of that reactant or product present in the reaction.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

When

balancing chemical equations, never change the subscripts in the formulas because it changes it into another substance. The first step in balancing an equation is to count the number of atoms of each element on each side of the equation. In the equation, N2H4 + O2 N2 + H2O, notice the numbers of the reactants does not equal the number of products.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Next

change one or more coefficients until the equation is balanced. N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O is balanced because both sides now have 2 N, 4 H, and 2 O atoms.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Counting with Moles

Chemists

need practical units for counting. Reactions can be described in terms of atoms and molecules, but these units are too small to be practical. Because chemical reactions often involve large numbers of particles, chemists use a unit called the mole to measure amounts of substances.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

mole (mol) is an amount of a substance that contains approximately 6.02 1023 particles of that substance. This is known as Avogadros number. For example, a mole of iron is 6.02 1023 atoms of iron. Do handout on mole conversions.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Molar Mass
The

mass of one mole of a substance is called a molar mass. The molar mass is the same as its atomic mass expressed in grams. For example, the atomic mass of carbon is 12.0 amu, so the molar mass of carbon is 12.0 grams.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

For

a compound, the molar mass is calculated by adding up the atomic masses of its component atoms and expressing the sum in grams. Carbon dioxide has one carbon (12.0 amu) and two oxygen atoms (2 16.0 amu). The molar mass of CO2 is 44.0 grams.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Mole-Mass Conversions
Once

the molar mass of a substance is known, you can convert moles into mass or mass into moles of that substance. Suppose you have 55.0 grams of CO2. To calculate the number of moles you have
1 mol CO 2 55.0g CO 2 1.25 mol CO 2 44.0g CO 2

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Calculations
Chemical

equations can be read as recipes for making new substances. In chemical reactions, the mass of a reactant or product can be calculated by using a balanced chemical equation and molar masses of the reactants and products.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

The

equations tell how to relate the amounts of reactants to amounts of products. Molar masses allow those amounts to be converted into masses.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Converting Mass to Moles

To

calculate how much oxygen is required to make 144 grams of water, begin with a balanced equation 2H2 + O2 2H2O. Then determine how many moles of water are in 144 grams by dividing by the molar mass of water (18.0 g).

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Using Mole Ratios

This

shows that 8.00 moles of water will be produced. Each mole of oxygen that reacts will yield two moles of water, so the 8.00 moles of water will require 4.00 moles of O2.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Converting Moles to Mass

To

find the grams of O2 needed use the molar mass of O2 as a conversion factor. (4 32 = 128) To produce 144 grams of H2O, 128 grams of O2 must be supplied.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Section 1 Assessments
Quick

Lab: Modeling a Mole Section Assessment Questions 1-10 p. 198

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Just

because two reactions have the same product, you cannot assume that they are the same type of reaction.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Classifying Reactions
Reactions

are often classified by the type of reactants or the number of reactants and products. Some general types of reactions are synthesis reactions, decomposition reactions, singlereplacement reactions, double-replacement reactions, and combustion reactions. Each type describes a different way in which reactants interact to form products.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

1. Synthesis means The following drawings putting something represent reactants and products of three different together. Which drawing represents a chemical reactions. synthesis reaction? Explain your answer. Reaction B is a synthesis reaction, because the two reactants come together to make one product.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

The following drawings 2. Decomposition means taking something apart. represent reactants and products of three different Which drawing represents a decomposition reaction? chemical reactions. Explain your answer.
Reaction A is a decomposition reaction, because the reactant is taken apart to make two products.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

The following drawings 2. Replacement means something taking the represent reactants and products of three different place of another. Which drawing represents a chemical reactions. replacement reaction?
Explain your answer. Reaction C is a replacement reaction, because one reactant takes the place of part of another.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Synthesis
A

synthesis-reaction is one in which two or more substances react to form a single substance. The reactants may be either elements or compounds. The product is always a compound. The general formula for synthesis reactions is A + B AB

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Decomposition
The

opposite of synthesis is decomposition A decomposition reaction is one in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

The

reactant must be a compound. The products may be either elements or compounds. The general equation for decomposition reactions is AB A + B.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Single Replacement
A

single-replacement reaction is a reaction in which one element takes the place of another element in a compound. The general form for single-replacement reactions is A + BC B + AC. For example 2K + 2H2O H2 + 2KOH Cu + 2AgNO3 2Ag + Cu(NO3)2

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Double Replacement
Double-replacement

reaction is one in which two different compounds exchange positive ions and form two new compounds. The general form is AB + CD AD + CB. Notice two replacements take place in this reaction. Not only is A replacing C, but C is also replacing A.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

For

example Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI PbI2 + 2KNO3

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Combustion
A

combustion reaction is one in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen, often producing heat and light. The products of combustion are always carbon dioxide and water. of methane is an example. CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Burning

7.2 Types of Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Reactions as Electron Transfers

As

scientists learned more about the structure of the atom, they found different ways to describe how reactions take place. The discovery of subatomic particles enabled scientists to classify certain reactions as transfers of electrons between atoms. A reaction which transfers electrons from one reactant to another is an oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox reaction.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Oxidation
Synthesis

reactions in which a metal combines with oxygen traditionally have been classified as oxidations. 2Ca + O2 2CaO The reactants Ca and O2 are neutral atoms. The product is composed of Ca2+ and O2 ions.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Any

process in which an element loses electrons during a reaction is called oxidation. This results in an increase in the oxidation number. A reactant is oxidized if it loses electrons. Ca Ca2+ + 2e

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Reduction

O + 2e O2

The

process in which an element gains electrons during a chemical reaction is called reduction. It results in a decrease in oxidation number. A reactant is said to be reduced if it gains electrons.

Chemical Reactions

7.2 Types of Reactions

Oxidation

and reduction always occur

together. When one element loses electrons, another element must gain electrons.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Section 2 Assessment Activities

Types

of reactions handout Lesson on oxidation reduction half method Lab on 6 types of reactions Section Assessment 1-8 p. 205

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

The

combustion of propane produces carbon dioxide and water. The description of this reaction is incomplete unless the heat and light produced are included.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Bonds and Energy

The

chemical equation for the combustion of propane can include heat as a product. C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O + heat. This equation states that the heat released in the reaction came from the reactants. Chemical energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Energy

changes in chemical reactions are determined by changes that occur in chemical bonding. Chemical reactions involve breaking of chemical bonds in the reactants and the formation of chemical bonds in the products.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Breaking Bonds
Breaking

bonds requires energy.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Forming Bonds
The

formation of chemical bonds releases energy. The heat and light given off by combustion of propane result from the formation of new chemical bonds.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Physical

changes can release or absorb

energy. During an exothermic change energy is released to the surroundings. During an endothermic change energy is absorbed from the surroundings. Similar energy flow occurs in chemical changes.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Exothermic Reactions
A

chemical reaction that releases energy to its surroundings is called an exothermic reaction. In exothermic reactions, the energy released as the products form is greater than the energy required to break the bonds in the reactants.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Figure

18A shows how the chemical energy changes during an exothermic reaction. Notice the chemical energy of the reactants is greater than the chemical energy of the products. The difference between these amounts of energy equals the amount of heat energy given off by the reaction.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

In

any reaction, the chemical energy reaches a peak before the reactants change into products. This peak represents the amount of energy required to break the chemical bonds of the reactants.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Endothermic Reactions
A

chemical reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings is called an endothermic reaction. In an endothermic reaction, more energy is required to break the bonds in the reactants than is released by the formation of the products.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Figure

18B shows the energy diagram for an endothermic reaction. Notice that the energy of the products is greater than the energy of the reactants. The difference between these amounts of energy equals the amount of heat that must be absorbed from the surroundings.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

The

decomposition of mercury (II) oxide is an endothermic reaction. Because heat is absorbed, the energy term appears on the left side of the equation. 2HgO + 181.7 kJ 2Hg + O2

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

Conservation of Energy
In

an exothermic reaction, the chemical energy of the reactants is converted into heat plus the chemical energy of the products. In an endothermic reaction, heat plus the chemical energy of the reactants is converted into chemical energy of the products.

Chemical Reactions

7.3 Energy Changes in Reactions

In

both cases, the total energy before and after the reaction is the same. This is known as the law of conservation of energy.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Section 3 Assessment Activities

Section

3 assessment questions 1-5 p.

209

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

7.4 Reaction Rates

A

Calorie is a unit of energy used in the field of nutrition. The upper case C equals 1000 calories. equates to a kilocalorie physics calorie is the amount of energy needed to change one g of water one oC

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Reactions Over Time

The

progress of any chemical reaction can be measured over time. Any change that happens over time can be expressed as a rate. A reaction rate is the rate at which reactants change into products over time.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Reaction

rates tell how fast a reaction is going, or how fast the reactants are being consumed, the products are being formed or energy is being absorbed or released.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Factors Affecting Reaction Rates

Chemical

reactions involve collisions between particles of reactants. The reaction rate depends on how often these particles collide. Almost any reaction rate can be changed by varying the conditions under which the reaction occurs.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Factors

that affect reaction rates include temperature surface area concentration stirring catalysts

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Temperature
Generally,

an increase in temperature will increase the reaction rate while a decrease in temperature will decrease the reaction rate. Increasing the temperature causes the particles to move faster, on average. Particles that move faster are more likely to collide and more likely to react.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Surface Area
The

smaller the particle size of a given mass, the larger is its surface area. An increase in surface area increases the exposure of reactants to one another. The greater this exposure, the more collisions there are that involve reacting particles. Increasing the surface area of a reactant tends to increase the reaction rate.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Stirring
Stirring

also increases the exposure of reactants to each other. Collisions between the particles of the reactants are more likely to happen. Stirring the reactants will generally increase the reaction rate.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Concentration
The

reaction rate is also changed by a change in the concentration of the reactants. Concentration refers to the number of particles in a given volume.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Catalysts
The

presence of a catalyst can change the reaction rate. A catalyst is substance that affects the reaction rate without being used up in the reaction. Catalysts can be used to speed up a reaction or enable a reaction to occur at a lower temperature.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Figure

23 shows how a catalyst lowers the energy barrier during a reaction.

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

Chemical Reactions

7.4 Reaction Rates

2SO 2 O 2 2SO 3
V2 O 5
Since

the catalyst is neither a reactant nor a product, it is written over the arrow. Because the catalyst is not consumed, it can be used over and over again.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Section 4 Assessment
Quick

Lab p. 214 Observing the Action of Catalysts Section Assessment Questions 1-6 p. 215

Chemical Reactions

7.5 Equilibrium

7.5 Equilibrium
Equilibrium

is a state in which the forward and reverse paths of a change take place at the same rate. When opposing physical changes take place at the same rate, a physical equilibrium is reached. When opposing chemical changes take place at the same rate, a chemical equilibrium is reached.

Chemical Reactions

7.5 Equilibrium

Physical Equilibrium
When

liquid water is in equilibrium with water vapor, the system can be written as.

H 2 O(l) H 2 O(g) The pair of arrows indicates that the forward change and the reverse change are happening simultaneously and at the same rate.

Chemical Reactions

7.5 Equilibrium

When

a physical change does not go to completion, a physical equilibrium is established between forward and reverse changes.

Chemical Reactions

7.5 Equilibrium

Chemical Equilibrium
A

reversible reaction is a reaction in which the conversion of reactants into products and the conversion of products into reactants can happen simultaneously. When a chemical reaction does not go to completion, a chemical equilibrium is established between the forward and reverse reactions.

Chemical Reactions

7.5 Equilibrium

Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibrium

Chemical

equilibria can change depending on the conditions of the reaction. When a change is introduced to system in equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts in the direction that relieves the change. This is known as Le Chteliers principle.

Chemical Reactions

7.1 Describing Reactions

Section 5 Assessment Questions

Section

5 Assessment Questions 1-5 p.

219 Lab: Manipulating Chemical Equilibrium p. 220