Materials and Manufacturing in product design and development

Product design
Design a product considering its entire life cycle
Detail design (Concept detailing, engineering drawing, CAD/CAM, CAE..), material selection, manufacturing methods, Eco-design, DfX
Engineering dept.

Prototyping
R&D dept.

Initial design (Concept/idea generation, concept evaluation, selection..)

Design dept.

Manufacturing
Manufacturing dept.

Production

Identifying customer needs

Marketing dept.

Mrf./Prod./industrial dept.

Discard (land fill) Recycle, reuse, remanufacture

Service dept.

Marketing
Marketing dept.

Sales
Sales dept.

Services
Service dept. Sales dept.

After use Use Purchase

Sales dept.

Engineering materials

Disclaimer: images are from the internet

Industrial materials Solid Metals Plastics Concrete Glass Stone Wood Liquid Acetone Alcohol Mercury Oil Coolant Water Gas Air CO2 He Ne

Materials used in the design and manufacture of products

Materials used in the design and manufacture of products

Metals Pure metals Alloys Polymers Plastics Adhesives Films Fibers Elastomers Hardwood Softwood Manufactured board Wood Fabrics

Non-Metals Composites Ceramics Oxides Carbides Nitrides

Ferrous NonFerrous

Natural Synthetic

Thermoplastic Thermoset Elastomers

Reinforced Plastics Ceramic-matrix Metal-Matrix Laminates

Read classification of materials

Materials classification
Elements Alloys

Steels (Ferrous) Carbon Steels Alloy Steels Stainless Steels Tool Steels

Non Ferrous Aluminum Alloys Copper Alloys..

Elements and use

Common classification of engineering materials

Common engineering materials that come within the scope of Material Science may be classified broadly into the following three types:-

Metals (Ferrous and Non-Ferrous) Ceramics Polymers Composites

Please read Dr. Anupam Aggarwals previous course class slides

Group Metals and Alloys

Important Characteristics Lusture, Hardness, Resistance to Corrosion, Thermal and Electrical Conductivity, Malleability, Stiffness and Property of Magnetism. Thermal Resistance, Brittleness, Opaqueness to Light, Electrical Insulation, High-temperature Strength, abrasiveness, Resistance to Corrosion. Soft, Light in weight, Dimensionally unstable, Poor Conductors of Heat and Electricity, Ductile, Combustible, Low-thermal Resistance.

Common Examples of Engineering use Metals: Ferrous metals and alloys (irons, carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, tool and die steels) Nonferrous metals and alloys (aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, titanium, precious metals, refractory metals, superalloys) Glasses Glass ceramics Graphite Diamond Silica, Glass, Cement, Concrete, Refractories, Silicon Carbide, Boron Nitride abrasives, Ferrites, Insulators, Garnets, etc. Thermoplastics plastics Thermoset plastics Elastomers Plastics Poly Vinyl Chloride, Poly Tetra Fluoroethylene, Polycarbonates. Natural and Synthetic Fibers Nylon, Terylene, Leather, etc. Other uses Explosives, Refrigerants, Insulators, Lubricants, Detergents, Fuels, Vitamins, Medicines, adhesives, etc. Composites Reinforced plastics Metal-matrix composites Ceramic-matrix composites Sandwich structures Concrete

Ceramics

Organic Polymers

Composites

Hardness, Poor Conductors of Heat and Electricity, Noncombustible, high thermal registance

Materials for special usage Heat insulating materials: asbestos, glass wool, thermo Cole, cork, mica. Electrical insulating materials. china clay, leather, bakelite, ebonite, glass wool, rubber, felt. Sound insulating materials: Cork, fibre boards. Fabrication materials: Wood, plywood, rubber natural and synthetic, Glass plate glass, toughened glass, safety glass. Refractory materials: General characteristics and uses of dolomite, ceramics. Protective coating materials: Paints, primers, varnishes, enamels, putti, electroplating materials, rubasil, Teflon coating.

Materials usage

Source: Galway technology service support service

http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CDAQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.t4.ie%2FProfessional_Development %2FRD9_Technology%2FMaterials%2520Technology%2FClassification%2520of%2520Materials.ppt&ei=JoPkTeKaLIPjrAfPysSfBg&usg=AF QjCNE62x65YCGYwd3Nji4HIMDwCBzQrA

Classification of Materials
Materials used in the design and manufacture of products Plastics Wood Composites Ceramics Metals Fabrics

Linen, cotton, nylon, Kevlar Tungstenaluminium bit Layers ofwood lens Steel, polycarbonate, carbide tool BalsaAcrylic model aluminium & acrylic

Classification of Materials (Plastics)

Plastics can be further classified as; Thermoplastic Thermoset Elastomers
Thermoplastics Acrylics Nylons PVC Polyethylene Thermosets Elastomers Epoxy resins Rubbers Phenolic Silicones Urea formaldehyde Phenol formaldehyde PolyestersPVC gutters Polyurethanes Polyethylene
Rubber

Classification of Materials (Wood) Wood can be further categorised as; Hardwood Softwood Manufactured board Beech Ash Oak Cedar Mahogany with Veneer Plywood Chipboard
Softwood Pine Manufactured Board Plywood

Hardwood Oak

Ash Beech
Sycamore

Cedar Fir
Spruce

Blockboard MDF
Melamine board

Classification of Materials (Composites)

A composite is a combination of two or more chemically distinct materials whose physical characteristics are superior to its constituents acting independently. Because of their high strength/stiffness to weight ratio they are widely used in the; Aerospace industry Offshore structures Boats Sporting goods

Classification of Materials (Composites)

Examples of composites include; Reinforced Plastics Ceramic-matrix Metal-Matrix Laminates

Thrust reinforcedof A380hull Carbon Combustionchamber for rocket Outer Kevlar, taffeta fuselage jet engine reinforced plastic skinCylinder& polyester sails Cylinder linings plastic Glass chamber panels linings

Classification of Materials (Ceramics)

Ceramics are compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements, examples include;

Oxides (alumina insulation and abrasives, zirconia dies for metal extrusion and abrasives) Carbides (tungsten-carbide tools) Nitrides (cubic boron nitride, 2nd in hardness to diamond)

Classification of Materials (Metals)

Metals can be further classified as Ferrous & Non-Ferrous, some examples include;
High Stainless BrassSpeed Copper Steel Ferrous Aluminium steel

Non-Ferrous

Steels Stainless Steels High Speed Steels Cast Irons

Aluminium Copper Brass Titanium

Classification of Materials (Fabrics)

Fabrics can be further classified as natural and synthetic

Natural Cotton Canvas Nylon

Synthetic

Polyester

Materials used in spacemarine& printless stretch Mylar, neoprene coated suits include Cotton T-shirtPolyester rope- aluminized Polyester(design Canvas deck chair kitespinnaker Colourful nylon projects) nylon, dacron, urethane coated nylon, tricot and spandex. The outer layer than nylon- resists UV light is a blend of Gortex, Kevlar and Nomex

Classification of Materials Materials)

(Smart

A smart material can be described as a material that has a useful response to external influences or stimuli.
There are many examples of smart materials in everyday use that are not modern developments they include; Metal springs Light bulbs self regulate because as The filament temperature increases

their resistance rises

Ancient civilisations have long used porous ceramics for self regulating cooling
Wine Cooler

Classification of Materials (Smart Materials) Other more modern examples of smart materials include;
Shape memory polymers and alloys Smart Heat shrink tubing and packaging Wire
actuators open/close greenhouse windows Smart Automatic linear, angular and rotary Link Silicone Actuators,

Thermostats for heating control Anthromorphic actuation human like robotic motion Allows rotary motion between shafts up to 3600 Smart Fluids
Motion control gel Piezoelectric Materials CD tray opening/closing, camera lenses

Ferro Chameleon fluids earthquake dampers in buildings, hard disks Colours Sensors, musical cards, motors, actuators, clocks
Car paints, printing inks, packaging

The word, polymer, implies that polymers are constructed from pieces (monomers) that can be easily connected into long chains (polymer
Latin: Plasticus, that which can be molded. This name honors plastics useful property of being easily molded.

Glucose
Structural formula. Straight chain glucose 1

Glucose
Two ring-shape versions

H-C=O | 2 H-C-OH |3 HO-C-H | 4 H-C-OH |5 H-C-OH |6 CH2OH

Glucose
glucose bending

Used in making starch flips either way

bends

alpha-glucose

Glucose bends itself into 4 different shapes millions of times a second

Used in making cellulose

beta-glucose

Why use plastics

Plastic are easily formed materials. The advantage to the manufacturer is that plastic products can be mass-produced and require less skilled staff. Plastics require little or no finishing, painting, polishing etc. Plastic is referred to as a self-finishing material. Particular finishes can be achieved at relatively low cost.

Plastics can be easily printed, decorated or painted.

Plastics are corrosion resistant, and generally waterproof although certain types of plastics such as UPVC can become brittle and it is possible for the suns rays to cause the colour of the plastic to fade. It becomes bleached.

Plastics are lighter than metals, giving deeper sections for a given weight, and hence stronger sections.

Origins of Plastics - synthetic plastics.

The main source of synthetic plastics is crude oil.

Coal and natural gas are also used. Petrol, paraffin, lubricating oils and high petroleum gases are bi-products, produced during the refining of crude oil. These gases are broken down into monomers. Monomers are chemical substances consisting of a single molecule. A process called Polymerisation occurs when thousands of monomers are linked together. The compounds formed as called polymers. Combining the element carbon with one or more other elements such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and nitrogen makes most polymers.

Natural Plastics
Natural plastic products occur in such things as animals horns, animals milk, insects, plants and trees.
Animals horns - Casein (glue)

Animals milk - Formaldehyde (glue)

Insects - Shellac (French polishing) Plants - Cellulose (table tennis balls), Cellulose acetate (cloth, photographic film, handles), Cellophane (wrapping), Bitumen (roads, flat roofs) Trees - Latex (rubber)

Common plastics

A polymer made form just one monomer is polyethylene. It is the most common plastic you see. It is used for bottles, buckets, jugs, containers, toys, even synthetic lumber, and many other things.

LDPE
Low density polyethylene Makes bottles that requires flexibility Produces grocery bags and garbage bags, shrink and stretch film and the coating for milk cartons

Low density polyethylene is used to make plastic bags, plastic wrap, and squeeze bottles, plus many other things.

HDPE
High Density Polyethylene Used in milk, juice and water containers in order to take advantage of its protective barrier properties Its chemical resistance properties make it a good choice as container for household chemicals and detergents.

PET
Polyethylene Terephthalate
A clear, tough, polymer with exceptional gas and moisture barrier properties. PETs ability to contain carbon dioxide (carbonation) make it a good choice in soft drink bottles.

Polythene (polyethelene)
High-density polythene has been used to manufacture milk crates, bottles, buckets, bowl and gear wheels.

Vinyl
Polyvinyl chloride, or PVC Excellent clarity, puncture resistance and cling Film vinyl can breathe, making it ideal for meats

PP
Polypropylene
High tensile strength, ideal for caps and lids with threaded openings

High melting point so can be hot-filled with products that then will cool
Also used for products that need to be incubated, such as yogurt

PS
Polystyrene
In its crystalline form, it is a colorless plastic plastic that can be clear and hard. It can also be foamed to provide exceptional insulation properties. Foamed or expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used for products such as meat trays, egg cartons and coffee cups. It is also used for packaging and protecting appliances, electronics and other sensitive products

Polystyrene
Polystyrene is used to make plates, cutlery and model kits. It is stiff hard and comes in a wide range of colours

Expanded polystyrene
This is used for disposable food packaging, disposable cups, heat insulation and protective packaging for electrical equipment.

Clear Acrylic (Perspex)

It was first used to make aircraft canopies. It is ten times more impact resistant than glass.

Nylon
Nylon is hard, tough, selflubricating, has a high melting point and has very good resistance to wear and tear.
It has been used to make clothing, bearings and propellers.

PVC
The rigid type is used to make pipes, guttering and roofing. It is very lightweight and is resistant to acids and alkalis. The plasticised type is used for suitcases, hosepipes, electrical wiring and floor coverings.

The favorite properties of plastics are that they are inert and won't react with what is stored in them. They also are durable and won't easily decay, dissolve, or break apart. These are great qualities for things you keep, but when you throw them away, they won't decompose.

Since they dont decompose, the answer is to recycle the plastics so they can be remade into something else. Here we see a bunch of CDs getting recycled.

Recycling plastics The table below shows the recycling codes for the most easily recycled plastics, and describes what functions they are useful for. All of these are thermoplastics this means that they can be reheated, softened and reformed.
Codes Descriptions Properties Packaging Applications Recycled Products

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET, PETE). PET is clear, tough, and has good gas and moisture barrier properties. Commonly used in soft drink bottles and many injection molded consumer product containers. Other applications include strapping and both food and non-food containers. Cleaned, recycled PET flakes and pellets are in great demand for spinning fiber for carpet yarns, producing fiberfill and geo-textiles. Nickname: Polyester.
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). HDPE is used to make bottles for milk, juice, water and laundry products. Unpigmented bottles are translucent, have good barrier properties and stiffness, and are well suited to packaging products with a short shelf life such as milk. Because HDPE has good chemical resistance, it is used for packaging many household and industrial chemicals such as detergents and bleach. Pigmented HDPE bottles have better stress crack resistance than unpigmented HDPE bottles.

Clarity, strength, toughness, barrier to gas and moisture, resistance to heat

Plastic soft drink, water, sports drink, beer, mouthwash, catsup and salad dressing bottles. Peanut butter, pickle, jelly and jam jars. Ovenable film and ovenable prepared food trays.
Milk, water, juice, cosmetic, shampoo, dish and laundry detergent bottles; yogurt and margarine tubs; cereal box liners; grocery, trash and retail bags.

Fiber, tote bags, clothing, film and sheet, food and beverage containers, carpet, strapping, fleece wear, luggage and bottles.

Stiffness, strength, toughness, resistance to chemicals and moisture, permeability to gas, ease of processing, and ease of forming.

Liquid laundry detergent, shampoo, conditioner and motor oil bottles; pipe, buckets, crates, flower pots, garden edging, film and sheet, recycling bins, benches, dog houses, plastic lumber, floor tiles, picnic tables, fencing.

Codes

Descriptions Vinyl (Polyvinyl Chloride or PVC): In addition to its stable physical properties, PVC has excellent chemical resistance, good weatherability, flow characteristics and stable electrical properties. The diverse slate of vinyl products can be broadly divided into rigid and flexible materials. Bottles and packaging sheet are major rigid markets, but it is also widely used in the construction market for such applications as pipes and fittings, siding, carpet backing and windows. Flexible vinyl is used in wire and cable insulation, film and sheet, floor coverings synthetic leather products, coatings, blood bags, medical tubing and many other applications. Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE).Used predominately in film applications due to its toughness, flexibility and relative transparency, making it popular for use in applications where heat sealing is necessary. LDPE is also used to manufacture some flexible lids and bottles and it is used in wire and cable applications

Properties Versatility, clarity, ease of blending, strength, toughness, resistance to grease, oil and chemicals.

Packaging Applications Clear food and nonfood packaging, medical tubing, wire and cable insulation, film and sheet, construction products such as pipes, fittings, siding, floor tiles, carpet backing and window frames..

Recycled Products Packaging, looseleaf binders, decking, paneling, gutters, mud flaps, film and sheet, floor tiles and mats, resilient flooring, cassette trays, electrical boxes, cables, traffic cones, garden hose, mobile home skirting.

Ease of processing, strength, toughness, flexibility, ease of sealing, barrier to moisture.

Dry cleaning, bread and frozen food bags, squeezable bottles, e.g. honey, mustard.

Shipping envelopes, garbage can liners, floor tile, furniture, film and sheet, compost bins, paneling, trash cans, landscape timber, lumber

Codes

Descriptions Polypropylene (PP). Polypropylene has good chemical resistance, is strong, and has a high melting point making it good for hot-fill liquids. PP is found in flexible and rigid packaging to fibers and large molded parts for automotive and consumer products.

Properties Strength, toughness, resistance to heat, chemicals, grease and oil, versatile, barrier to moisture.

Packaging Applications Catsup bottles, yogurt containers and margarine tubs, medicine bottles

Recycled Products Automobile battery cases, signal lights, battery cables, brooms, brushes, ice scrapers, oil funnels, bicycle racks, rakes, bins, pallets, sheeting, trays. Thermometers, light switch plates, thermal insulation, egg cartons, vents, desk trays, rulers, license plate frames, foam packing, foam plates, cups, utensils

Polystyrene (PS). Polystyrene is a versatile plastic that can be rigid or foamed. General purpose polystyrene is clear, hard and brittle. It has a relatively low melting point. Typical applications include protective packaging, containers, lids, cups, bottles and trays.

Versatility, insulation, clarity, easily formed

Compact disc jackets, food service applications, grocery store meat trays, egg cartons, aspirin bottles, cups, plates, cutlery.

Other. Use of this code indicates that the package in question is made with a resin other than the six listed above, or is made of more than one resin listed above, and used in a multi-layer combination. Other plastics, including acrylic, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, fiberglass, nylon, polycarbonate, and polylactic acid.

Dependent on resin or combination of resins

Three and five gallon reusable water bottles, some citrus juice and catsup bottles.

Bottles, plastic lumber applications.

Processing of plastics

There are a wide variety of manufacturing processes that exist for plastic production. A wide variety of plastic manufacturing processes exist

Processing of Plastics

Extrusion Lamination (Calendaring) Thermoforming Casting Molding

Compression Molding Transfer Molding Rotational Molding Reaction Injection Molding Blow Molding Injection Molding

Expansion Foaming Spinning Solid-Phase Forming

33/49

Extrusion
One of the most common process for creating plastic for further processing is extrusion. The Extrusion process combines color pigments and performance additives with resin by pushing it through rotating screws. The heat and pressure produced within the screw barrels disperses and melts the ingredients into homogeneous molten mixture. At the end of the mixture is usually cool die. The mixture is pushed through the die and onto the finishing operation such as pelletizing, calendaring, or molding.

33/50

In calendering, sheets of plastic are laminated together by rolling through heated roller. Basically, warm or molten plastic (usually from an extruder) is fed through a series of heated rolls as in this figure. The gaps between the rolls determine the final sheet size. Each additional roll would reduce the sheet thickness further. Then, once the laminated sheet is the correct thickness, the sheet is then stripped off.
Schematic illustration of calendering. Sheets produced by this process are subsequently used in thermoforming.

Lamination (Calendering)

Reinforced- plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown are front and rear forks, a rear swingarm, a wheel, and brake disks.
33/51

In thermoforming, a plastic sheet is heated in an oven to the sag point but not to the melting point. The sheet is then removed from the oven and placed over a mold and through the application of a vacuum is pulled against the mold. Typical parts are advertising signs, refrigerator liners, packaging, appliance housings, and panels for shower stalls. The parts cannot have openings or holes or the vacuum cannot be maintained. The sheets used for thermoforming are made using the calendaring process.

Thermoforming

33/52

Casting used for both thermosetting and thermoplastic materials. Basically, casting places plastic in a mold then hardens it into a rigid article or form. In potting, the plastic is cast around a part, and the case becomes part of the final component. In encapsulation, the component is covered with plastic and the component and plastic are ejected from the mold. Both processes are used extensively in electronics for insulation and dielectric properties

Casting

Schematic illustration of (a) casting, (b) potting, (c) encapsulation of plastics.

33/53

Molding is the most common plastic forming or finishing method. There are many different methods in plastic molding. Methods for molding include:

Molding

Compression Molding Transfer Molding Rotational Molding Reaction Injection Molding Blow Molding Injection Molding

33/54

Blow molding is a modified extrusion and injection molding process, wherein a tube is extruded (usually turned so that it is vertical) and clamped into a mold with a cavity much larger than the tube diameter. Air is blown inside the tube opening and the plastic expands to fill the mold cavity shape. Blow molding is similar to blowing up a balloon inside a bottle. Mostly, blow molding forms hollow plastic parts with relatively thin walls. Examples of blow molding products are bottles, bumpers, bags and ducting.

Blow Molding (Bottles)

33/55

The last and more popular process is injection molding. This process is used to form complex plastic parts. Typical injection molded parts are fittings, containers, bottle tops, housings, and much more. Here is a pictorial of a typical injection molding machine and part. It is the most common of the plastic forming processes today, accounting for approximately 30% of all plastics produced.

Injection Molding

33/56

ABS (Acrylanitrile Butadiene Styrene): amorphous, good Impact Strength, excellent appearance, easy to process computer housings, small appliances, automotive interior, & medical components Acrylic: amorphous polymers, excellent clarity, excellent weatherability optical & outdoor applications Cellulosics: among the first thermoplastics developed: smell funny, very flammable Nylon 6: semi-crystalline polymer, good cost to performance ratio, lower numbered nylons, 6 ,6-6, 4-6, absorb moisture and change their properties as a result Polycarbonate: amorphous material, excellent Impact Strength, clarity, & optical properties currently long lead times for this material. Polyethylene High Density: widely used, inexpensive, thermoplastic, easy to process, good to excellent chemical resistance, soft & not for use above 150 F Polypropylene: semi-crystalline material, low temperature material, excellent chemical resistance difficult to mold to extremely close tolerances Polystyrene High Impact (HIPS): few cents more than crystal styrene, to pay for the rubber modifier, opaque & very widely used, lower modulus, better elongation, & less brittle than crystal styrene PVC Polyvinyl Chloride Rigid: properties similar to ABS (except appearance) at a slightly reduced cost primarily for water pipe and pipe fittings, occasionally for electrical enclosures *in plastic phase PVC is corrosive to molds & machines (non corrosive as a solid)

Common Polymers

33/57

Why Design with Plastics?

Light weight, high weight to strength ratio, particularly when reinforced Relatively low cost compared to metals and composites

Density
Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering

Cost
58

Advantages

Properties

Light Weight High Strength-to-Weight Ratio Complex Parts - Net Shape Variety of Colors (or Clear) Corrosion Resistant Electrical and thermal Insulation High Damping Coefficient Low pressures and temperature required Creep Thermally Unstable- can not withstand Extreme Heat U-V Light Sensitive Relatively low stiffness Relatively low strength Difficult to Repair/Rework Difficult to Sort/Recycle

Disadvantages

33/59

Ken Youssefi

Mechanical Engineering

60

Metals

METALS
Metals are Solid at room temperature, except mercury, which is liquid !
very high melting point. shiny when they cut. Metals have Metals are

Metals are
Metals are

good conductors of heat and electricity.

usually strong & malleable so they can be hammered into shape.

METALS

METALS

Materials used in the design and manufacture of products

Metals Pure metals Alloys

Non-Metals

Ferrous

Non-Ferrous

Iron

Aluminum Copper Silver Gold Zinc Tin

Steel (Iron+ carbon) Brass (Copper +Zinc) Bronze (copper +Tin) Stainless steel (Steel+ Chromium)

Read classification of materials

Most popular

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established standards for specific analysis of steels. In the 10XX series, the first digit indicates a plain carbon steel. The second digit indicates a modification in the alloys.

Classification of steels
SAE - AISI Number 1XXX Classification Carbon steels Low carbon steels: 0 to 0.25 % C Medium carbon steels: 0.25 to 0.55 % C High carbon steels: Above 0.55 % Carbon Nickel steels 5 % Nickel increases the tensile strength without reducing ductility. 8 to 12 % Nickel increases the resistance to low temperature impact 15 to 25 % Nickel (along with Al, Cu and Co) develop high magnetic properties. (Alnicometals) 25 to 35 % Nickel create resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures. Nickel-chromium steels These steels are tough and ductile and exhibit high wear resistance , hardenability and high resistance to corrosion. Molybdenum steels Molybdenum is a strong carbide former. It has a strong effect on hardenability and high temperature hardness. Molybdenum also increases the tensile strength of low carbon steels. Chromium steels Chromium is a ferrite strengthener in low carbon steels. It increases the core toughness and the wear resistnace of the case in carburized steels. Triple Alloy steels which include Nickel (Ni), Chromium (Cr), and Molybdenum (Mo). These steels exhibit high strength and also high strength to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance.

2XXX

3XXX

4XXX

5XXX

86XX 87XX 93XX 94XX 97XX 98XX

The effect of alloying elements on the properties of steel

Element Aluminum Effect Ferrite hardener Graphite former Deoxidizer Mild ferrite hardener Moderate effect on hardenability Graphite former Resists corrosion Resists abrasion High effect on ferrite as a hardener High red hardness Strong effect on hardenability Strong carbide former High red hardness Increases abrasion resistance Strong ferrite hardener Element Nickel Effect Ferrite strengthener Increases toughness of the hypoeutectoid steel With chromium, retains austenite Graphite former Austenite stabilizer Improves resistance to corrosion Ferrite hardener Increases magnetic properties in steel Ferrite hardener Improves machinability Increases hardenability

Chromium

Copper Silicon

Cobalt

Phosphorus

Molybdenum

Manganese

METALS
METALS & ALLOYS Metals are available in pure or alloy form. Pure Metals such as pure aluminium or pure copper, contain only one type of metal. They are not mixed with any other metal. Alloys are mixture of two or more pure metals. Alloys tend to have better strength properties than pure metals.

Alloys and pure metals often have special physical properties.

PROPERTIES OF METALS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Strength - The ability of a material to stand up to forces being applied without it bending, breaking, shattering or deforming in any way. Elasticity - The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in different directions, returning to its original position. Plasticity - The ability of a material to be change in shape permanently. Ductility - The ability of a material to change shape (deform) usually by stretching along its length. Tensile Strength The ability of a material to stretch without breaking or snapping. Malleability - The ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions without cracking. Toughness - A characteristic of a material that does not break or shatter when receiving a blow or under a sudden shock. Conductivity - The ability of a material to conduct electricity. Hardness The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear & indentation.

8. 9.

Common metals

FERROUS-METALS
1. Mild Steel
Composition: Iron alloy with 0.3% carbon Properties: Malleable and ductile, and therefore bends fairly easily Uses: nuts, bolts, screws, tubes etc.

Methods of Identification Appearance: Bright drawn mild steel has a smooth, bright surface; black mild steel is covered with a blue-grey oxide Dropping: Gives out a ringing note Grinding: Gives off a shower of long white sparks Effect of Heating: Slightly tougher but little change

FERROUS-METALS
2. Tool Steel / cast steel / carbon steel
Composition: Iron alloy with 0.5%-1.5% carbon Properties: Tough rather than hard, and fairly ductile Uses: Springs and most tools such as hammer heads, drills, chisels, shears etc

Methods of Identification Appearance: Has a smooth skin of black oxide Dropping: Gives out a high ringing note Grinding: Moderate number of red sparks Effect of Heating: Becomes hard and brittle

FERROUS-METALS
3. cast iron
Composition: Iron alloy with 2%-4% carbon Properties: Brittle, snaps before it will bend. Strong in compression Uses: Vices, cylinder blocks for car engines, frames for most machines

Methods of Identification Appearance: Grey with a granular surface Dropping: gives out a dull note Grinding: Gives off a few dull sparks Effect of Heating: No change

Use of non-ferrous metals Non Ferrous metals are those metals which does not contain iron . They are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals. Most commonly used non ferrous metals are Aluminum, Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin, Gilding Metal and Zinc. Aluminium: Aluminium is a widely used non ferrous metal. It is Grayish-White in colour, soft and malleable. This non ferrous metal is conductive to heat and electricity. It is corrosion resistant. Aluminium can be welded but this is difficult. Special processes need to be adopted in order to weld it properly. Due to its light weight, it is used in the manufacturing of aircrafts and boats. Its other uses are window frames, saucepans, packaging and insulation, pistons and cranks. Aluminium alloys (Duraluminium): Aluminium alloys (Duraluminium) is composed of Aluminium, Copper and Manganese. Its also Ductile, Malleable, Work Hardens. It is used in the manufacturing of aircrafts and vehicle parts.
Source: http://www.bracebridgeengineering.co.uk/engineering_non_ferrous_metal.asp

Copper: Copper is another very important pure non ferrous metal. Its red in colour, tough and ductile. It is very good electrical conductor and offers great resistance to corrosion. Copper can work hard or cold but it needs frequent annealing. Copper is mostly used in the manufacturing of electric wires, cables and conductors. Its other uses are water and central heating pipes and cylinders, Printed circuit boards and manufacturing of special roofs. Brass: Another important non ferrous metal is Brass which is not a pure metal but combination of Copper and Zinc. It contains 65% copper and 35% Zinc. This non ferrous metal is very corrosive, yellow in colour, tarnishes very easily. It is harder than copper and its good electrical conductor. Lead: Lead is a pure and an important non ferrous metal. It is the heaviest common metal. The other characteristics are its softness, malleability and brightness. It is shiny metal when new but quickly oxidizes to a dull grey. It has resistant to corrosion. Its uses are different than other non ferrous metals. It is used in protection against X-Ray machine, Paints, roof coverings, flashings etc.

Zinc: Lead is also a pure and an important non ferrous metal. A layer of oxide protects it from corrosion. It is bluish-white in colour and easily worked. It is used to makes brass by mixing and processing with Copper. It is used as coating layer for steel galvanized corrugated iron roofing, tanks, buckets, rust-proof paints etc. Tin: Tin is a pure non ferrous metal. It is white in colour, soft and corrosion resistant. It is used in Tinplate and making bronze. Gilding metal: This non ferrous metal comprises of 85% copper and 15% zinc. It is corrosion resistant, golden in colour and enamels well. Its uses are Beaten metalwork and artificial jewellery manufacturing.