Chemistry.

The study of matter and the changes it undergoes

5 Major Areas of Chemistry

Analytical Chemistry- composition of substances. Inorganic Chemistry- substances without carbon Organic Chemistry- most substances containing carbon Biochemistry- Chemistry of living things Physical Chemistry- describes the behavior of chemicals (ex. stretching)

1.1 Chemistrys impact on society:

Health & Medicine

Sanitation Anesthesia Vaccines & Antibiotics Gene therapy Pharmaceuticals

BiotechnologyHuman Genome Project bacteria producing insulin cloning

Energy & Environment

Fossil fuels greenhouse gases Solar photovoltaic cells Fuel cells H from water Nuclear fission

Materials & Technology

Polymerssuch as? Ceramics.computer parts Liquid crystals.monitors Adhesives.super glue Coatings.teflon

Agriculture- worlds food supply

plant growth hormones ways to protect crops disease resistant plants

The Environment- both risks and benefits involved in discoveries

carbon dioxide, ozone, warming

Astronomy and Space Explorationcomposition of the planets analyze moon rocks planet atmospheres life on other planets?

1.3 The Scientific Method

A logical approach to solving problems or answering questions. Starts with observation- noting and recording facts hypothesis- an educated guess as to the cause of the problem, or a proposed explanation

Scientific Method

controlled experiment- designed to test the hypothesis only two possible answers
hypothesis is right hypothesis is wrong

Generates data observations from experiments. Modify hypothesis - repeat the cycle

Observations
Hypothesis

Cycle repeats many times. The hypothesis gets more and more certain. Becomes a theory

Experiment

A thoroughly tested model that explains why things behave a certain way.

Observations
Hypothesis Experiment

Theory can never be proven- due to new information Useful because they predict behavior Help us form mental pictures of processes (models)

Data Collection:

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Examples??

Observations
Hypothesis Experiment

Scientific Law is developed (math?) Describes how things behave

Law- tells how Theory- tells why

Observations Hypothesis

Theory (Model)

Experiment
Prediction

Modify

Law

Experiment

1.4 What is Matter?

Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Everything, but energy! Mass- amount of material or stuff in an object Weight is due to gravity, and changes from location to location; mass is always constant.

Types of Matter

Substance- a particular kind of matter - pure; is uniform (all the same) and has a definite composition (examples are elements & compounds)

water; gold

Mixture- more than one kind of matter; has a variable composition

Substances

Elements- simplest kind of matter

cannot be broken down any simpler all one kind of atom.

Compounds are substances that can be broken down only by chemical methods

When broken down, the pieces have completely different properties than the original compound. Made of two or more atoms, chemically combined (not physical blend!)

10 Most Common Elements

Mixtures

Physical blend of at least two substances; variable composition Heterogeneous- mixture is not uniform in composition

Chocolate chip cookie, gravel, soil.

Homogeneous- same composition throughout; called solutions

Kool-aid, air, salt water Every part keeps its own properties.

Solutions

Homogeneous mixture Can occur between any state of matter

gas in gas; liquid in gas; gas in liquid; solid in liquid; solid in solid (alloys), etc.

Solutions

Like all mixtures, they keep the properties of the components. Some can be separated easily by physical means: rocks and marbles, iron filings and sulfur Other methods: distillation- takes advantage of different boiling points

Compound or Mixture
Compound Made of one kind of material Made by a chemical change Mixture Made of more than one kind of material Made by a physical change

Definite composition

Variable composition

Classification of Matter

Which is it?

Mixture Element Compound

1.5 States of Matter

Solid- matter that can not flow (definite shape) and has definite volume. Liquid- definite volume but takes the shape of its container (flows). Gas- a substance without definite volume or shape and can flow. Vapor- a substance that is currently a gas, but normally is a liquid or solid at room temperature. (water vapor?)

States of Matter
Definite Definite Temp. ComVolume? Shape? increase pressible? Solid Liquid Gas
YES YES Small variation Small variation. Large Variation NO

YES

NO

NO

NO

NO

YES

Freeze Melt

Condense Evaporate

Solid

Liquid

Gas

1.6 Properties

Words that describe matter (adjectives) Physical Properties- a property that can be observed and measured without changing the composition.

Examples- color, hardness, m.p., b.p.

Chemical Properties- a property that can only be observed by changing the composition of the material.

Examples-volatile, flammable

Types of Properties:

Extensive Properties: Dependent on quantity of matter ex: mass, volume, density Intensive Properties: Independent of quantity ex: density, boiling point

Physical Changes

A change that changes appearances, without changing the composition.

Ex. Boil, melt, cut, bend, split, crack Boiled water is still water.

Chemical changes - a change where a new form of matter is formed.

Ex. Rust, burn, decompose, ferment

Filtration: Physical Separation

Distillation: Physical Separation

1.7 Measurement: International System of Units

The number is only part of the answer; it also need UNITS The standards of measurement used in science are those of the Metric System

International System of Units

Metric system is now revised as the International System of Units (SI), as of 1960 Simplicity and based multiples of 10 10 base units (Know themp.17 Table 1.3)

International System of Units

Sometimes, non-SI units are used Liter, Celsius, calorie Some are derived units Made by joining other units Speed (miles/hour) Density (grams/mL)

Most Commonly Used Prefixes

Volume

The space occupied by any sample of matter Calculated for a solid by multiplying the length x width x height SI unit = cubic meter (m3) Everyday unit = Liter (L), which is non-SI

Solid Volume Calculations

1 cm3 = 1 mL 1 dm3 = 1000 mL = 1 L 1 m3 = 1,000,000 mL = 1,000 L

Volume Measuring Instruments

Graduated cylinders Graduated Pipet Buret Volumetric Flask Syringe

Volume from Water Displacement

Volume changes?

Volume of any solid, liquid, or gas will change with temperature Much more prominent for GASES Therefore, measuring instruments are calibrated for a specific temperature, usually 20 oC, which is about normal room temperature

Units of Mass

Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter Weight is a force that measures the pull by gravity- it changes with location Mass is constant, regardless of location

Working with Mass

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), even though a more convenient unit is the gram Measuring instrument is the balance or scale

Density

Which is heavier- lead or feathers? It depends upon the amount of the material A truckload of feathers is heavier than a small pellet of lead The relationship here is between mass and volume- called Density

Density

The formula for density is: mass Density = volume Common units are g/mL, or possibly g/cm3, (or g/L for gas) Density is an intensive, physical property

Density and Temperature

What happens to density as the temperature increases? Mass remains the same Most substances increase in volume as temperature increases Thus, density generally decreases as the temperature increases

Density and water

Water is an important exception Over certain temperatures, the volume of water increases as the temperature decreases Does ice float in liquid water? Why?

Temperature

Heat moves from warmer object to the cooler object Remember that most substances expand with a temp. increase Basis for thermometers

Temperature scales

Celsius scale- named after a Swedish astronomer o Uses the freezing point(0 C) and boiling point (100 oC) of water as references Divided into 100 equal intervals, or degrees Celsius

Temperature scales

Kelvin scale (or absolute scale) Named after Lord Kelvin o K = C + 273 A change of one degree Kelvin is the same as a change of one degree Celsius No degree sign is used

3 most common temp. scales

0 K is called absolute zero, and equals 273 0C

Conversion Formulas

K = 0C + 273 F = 9/5(0C) + 32 C = 5/9 (0F 32)

1.8 Handling Numbers

How do you know what number to round your calculation answers to?

Significant figures: Determining which numbers are meaningful in a measurement or calculated quantity.

Working with Scientific Notation

Regardless of magnitude: all numbers can be expressed in formula N x 10n

N = number between 1 and 9.9 N = positive or negative whole # Ex: Express 0.000000456 in scientific notation Answer: 4.56 X 10-7

Working with Scientific Notation

Do you know how to use your calculator when you have numbers in scientific notation????

Working with Scientific Notation

Addition & Subtraction: exponents must be the same **Calculator does this for you!! Addition Line up decimal; add as usual the coefficients; exponent stays the same Ex: 4.56 X 103 + 3.20 x 105 = Answer: 3.2456 x 105

Subtraction Line up decimal; subtract coefficients as usual; exponent remains the same Ex: 6.7 x 10-4 5.34 x 10-3 = Answer: 4.67 x 10-3

Working with Scientific Notation

Multiplication Multiply the coefficients, add the exponents Ex: 9.99 x 105 5.55 x 10-6 = Answer: 5.54445

Division

Divide the coefficients, subtract the denominator exponent from numerator exponent Ex: 3.456 x 107/8.7 x 10-3 = Answer: 3.972 x 109

Significant Figures
Significant figures in a measurement include all of the digits that are known, plus a last digit that is estimated or uncertain. **This is what you did when you read the volume from the glassware in lab.

Significant Figures

1.) Any non-zero digit is significant Ex: 1.2345 = 5 sig. figs 2.) Zeros between non-zero digits are significant Ex: 1.2340567 = 8 sig. figs 3.) Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant Ex: 0.00123456 = 6 sig. figs

Rules: (page 24: Know 1-5)

Significant Figures
4.) All zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant if they follow a non-zero number Ex: 4.560000 = 7 sig. figs 0.00100 = 3 sig. figs 5.) #s without decimals present ambiguous info. Always use scientific notation to clear up problems. Ex: 56,700 = ? sig. figs 5.670 x 104 = 4 sig. figs

Significant Figures
Try These: How many sig. figs? A.) 1,245 B.) 1,245,000.15 C.) 0.00001 D.) 0.0004560 E.) 5.090 x 10-5

Sig. fig. calculations

Addition and Subtraction The answer should be rounded to the same number of decimal places as the least number in the problem

Addition & Subtraction

Examples: 1.) 4.56 cm + 3.1 cm= Answer: 7.7 cm 2.) 0.4567 L 0.00654 L = Answer: 0.4502 L 3.) 450 g + 1.04 g= Answer: 451 g

Sig. Fig. calculations

Multiplication and Division Round the answer to the same number of significant figures as the least number in the measurement

Multiply & Divide

Examples: 1.) 451 x 3.2 = Answer: 1,400 or 1.4 x 102 2.) 0.0345/5.60 = Answer: 0.00616 or 6.16 x 10-3 3.) 0.2030 x 12 = Answer: 2.4

Significant Figures
**Exact numbers obtained from definition or by counting of objects can be considered to have an infinite # of sig. figs. They are not considered in the calculation. Only use measurements!! Ex: 12 eggs in a dozen

Uncertainty in Measurements
Need to make reliable measurements in the lab Accuracy how close a measurement is to the true value Precision how close the measurements are to each other (reproducibility) **Do multiple trials for experiments!!

Uncertainty in Measurements

Accepted value correct value based on reliable references Experimental value the value measured in the lab Error the difference between the accepted and experimental values

Uncertainty in Measurements

Error = accepted experimental Can be positive or negative Percent error = the absolute value of the error divided by the accepted value, times 100% | error |
% error = accepted value x 100%

% Error
Can you think of an easier way to calculate this???

1.9 Dimensional Analysis

A way to analyze and solve problems by using units (or dimensions) of the measurement
Based on conversion factors Conversion factors are fractions that are equal to one. Both the top and bottom measurements are identical; they just use different units. Examples: 1ft/12 in 5,280 ft/1 mi

Dimensional Analysis

Give me some more examples!

Dimensional Analysis Example Problems

A ruler is 12.0 inches long. How long is it in cm? ( 1 inch = 2.54 cm)

in meters?

A race is 10.0 km long. How far is this in miles? Pikes peak is 14,110 ft. above sea level. What is this in meters?

Dimensional Analysis

Another measuring system has different units of measure: 6 ft = 1 fathom 100 fathoms = 1 cable length 10 cable lengths = 1 nautical mile 3 nautical miles = 1 league

Problem: Jules Verne wrote a book 20,000 leagues under the sea. How far is this in feet?

Problem solving
1. ANALYZE a) Identify the unknown Both in words and what units it will be measured in. Write it down! May need to read the question several times.

Problem Solving
b) Identify what is given (the known) Write it down! Unnecessary information may also be given

Problem solving
c) Plan a solution Break it down into steps. Look up needed information: *Tables *Formulas *Constants, or conversion factors *Choose an equation

Problem solving

2. CALCULATE

doing the arithmetic use a calculator

Problem Solving
3.

EVALUATE
Round off to proper # of sig. figs. Proper units? Need Scientific Notation? Check your work! Reread the question, did you answer it? Is it reasonable? Estimate an approximate answer

Converting Complex Units

Units expressed as a ratio or raised to a power speed is: miles/hour gas mileage is: miles/gallon 3 density is: g/cm 3 3 3 Volume is: cm , dm , m

Examples:

The density of silver is 10.5 g/cm3. Convert the density to kg/m3.

Answer: 1.05 x 104 kg/m3

The density of the lightest metal, lithium, is 5.34 x 102 kg/m3. Convert the density to g/cm3.

Answer: 0.534 g/cm3

Lastly.

What makes you perfector close to it?

Practice Practice & More Practice!!!