THE CELL

Cloned sheep (Dolly)

Major Elements of the Human Body

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N)

Lesser and Trace Elements of the Human Body

Lesser elements make up 3.9% of the body and include:
Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I), and iron (Fe)

Trace elements make up less than 0.01% of the body

They are required in minute amounts, and are found as part of enzymes

Cloned sheep (Dolly).

Cells: The Living Units

Cell Theory
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life (Schleiden & Schwann) Organismal activity depends on individual and collective activity of cells Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by subcellular structure Continuity of life has a cellular basis Virchow expanded on the cell theory and concluded one living cell could only originate from another living cell

Human cells are microscopic in size , but they vary considerably in size and differ even more in shape. For example : flat, brick shaped, threadlike, and irregular shapes.

4.2 Most cells are microscopic, Cells vary in size and shape

1 meter 10-3 10-6

10-9

There are two kinds of cells Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

Common features of all cells are a plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes.

4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukar yotic cells
Prokaryotic cell Nucleoid region Colorized TEM 15,000 Eukar yotic cell Organelles

The two groups (Domains) of prokaryotic cells are the Bacteria and the Archaea.

Eukaryotic cells are usually relatively larger (10100 um or more) in diameter. These cells are internally complex, with organelles
Figure 4.3A

Nucleus

Composition of the CELL

Plasma membrane
Cytoplasma
Organelles

Nucleus

Part of the Cell

Plasma membrane: surrounds the entire cell, forming its outer boundary Cytoplasma: living material inside the cell (except the nucleus) Nucleus: this structure contains the genetic code

Plasma membrane
It is the membrane that encloses the cytoplasm and form the outer boundary of the cell. This membrane is compose by two layers of phospolipids, also a fat molecule called cholesterol (help to stabilize) and proteins (as receptor)

Plasma Membrane

Figure 3.3

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Transport Enzymatic activity Receptors for signal transduction

Figure 3.4.1

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Intercellular adhesion Cell-cell recognition Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
Figure 3.4.2

 Simple diffusion nonpolar and lipidsoluble substances

Diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer
Diffuse through channel proteins

Passive Membrane Transport: Diffusion

Facilitated diffusion
Transport of glucose, amino acids, and ions Transported substances bind carrier proteins or pass through protein channels

Carriers

Are integral transmembrane proteins Show specificity for certain polar molecules including sugars and amino acids

Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane

Figure 3.7

Effect of Membrane Permeability on Diffusion and Osmosis

Figure 3.8a

Effects of Solutions of Varying Tonicity

Isotonic solutions with the same solute concentration as that of the cytosol Hypertonic solutions having greater solute concentration than that of the cytosol Hypotonic solutions having lesser solute concentration than that of the cytosol

Active Transport

Uses ATP to move solutes across a membrane Requires carrier proteins

PLAY

Active Transport

Cytoplasma
It is the specialized living material of cells It lies between the plasma membrane and the nucleus Numerous small structure (organelles) are part of the cytoplasma, along with the fluid that serves as the interior environment of each cell

Cytoplasmic Organelles
Specialized cellular compartments Membranous Mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus Nonmembranous Cytoskeleton, centrioles, and ribosomes

Organelles
Ribosomes Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Mitocondria Lysosomes Centrioles

 Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another Ultracentrifuges fractionate cells into their component parts Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the functions of organelles

Isolating Organelles by Cell Fractionation

LE 6-5a

Homogenization Tissue cells

Homogenate

Differential centrifugation

LE 6-5b
1000 g (1000 times the force of gravity) 10 min Supernatant poured into next tube 20,000 g 20 min

80,000 g 60 min Pellet rich in nuclei and cellular debris 150,000 g 3 hr Pellet rich in mitochondria (and chloroplasts if cells are from a plant) Pellet rich in microsomes (pieces of plasma membranes and cells internal membranes) Pellet rich in ribosomes

CELL PART
Plasma Membrane

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION(S)
Serves as the boundary of the cell. P and C (outer surface) perform various functions (Ex. markers and receptor) Synthesize proteins; a cells protein factories Rough ER receives and transports synthesized proteins Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates

Phospholipid bilayer studded with proteins

Ribosomes

Tiny particles each made up of rRNA subunits Membranous network of interconnected canals and sacs, some with ribosome (rough ER) and some without (smooth ER)

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

CELL PART
Golgi apparatus

STRUCTURE

FUNCTION(S)
Chemically processes, then packages substances from ER ATP synthesis; a cells powerhouse

Stack of flattened, membranous sacs

Mitochondria Membranous capsule containing a large, folded membrane encrusted with enzyme Lysosomes

Bubble of enzymes A cells digestive encased by membrane system

CELL PART
Nucleus

STRUCTURE
Doublemembraned, spherical envelope containing DNA strands

FUNCTION(S)

Dictates protein synthesis, thereby playing and essential role in other cell activities, namely active transport, metabolism, growth and heredity

Nucleolus

Dense region of the Plays an essential role nucleus in the formation of ribosomes

Mitochondria

Figure 3.17

 Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration Chloroplasts, found only in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the endomembrane system Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP

LE 6-17

Mitochondrion Intermembrane space Outer membrane

Free ribosomes in the mitochondrial matrix

Inner membrane Cristae Matrix

Mitochondrial DNA

100 nm

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Figure 3.18a and c

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope There are two distinct regions of ER: Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

LE 6-12 Smooth ER Rough ER Nuclear envelope

ER lumen Cisternae Ribosomes Transport vesicle Smooth ER Transitional ER Rough ER 200 nm

Functions of Smooth ER
The smooth ER
Synthesizes lipids Metabolizes carbohydrates Stores calcium Detoxifies poison

Functions of Rough ER
The rough ER
Has bound ribosomes Produces proteins and membranes, which are distributed by transport vesicles Is a membrane factory for the cell

Golgi Apparatus

Figure 3.20a

The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

Functions of the Golgi apparatus:

Modifies products of the ER Manufactures certain macromolecules Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy

Animation: Lysosome Formation

LE 6-14a

Nucleus

1 m

Lysosome Lysosome contains Food vacuole Hydrolytic active hydrolytic enzymes digest fuses with enzymes food particles lysosome
Plasma membrane Lysosome Digestive enzymes

Digestion Food vacuole

Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food

LE 6-14b Lysosome containing two damaged organelles 1 m

Mitochondrion fragment Peroxisome fragment

Lysosome fuses with vesicle containing damaged organelle

Hydrolytic enzymes digest organelle components

Lysosome

Digestion Vesicle containing damaged mitochondrion Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle

Nucleus
Contains nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin, and distinct compartments rich in specific protein sets Gene-containing control center of the cell Contains the genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized

Nucleoli
Dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus

Site of ribosome production

Nucleus

Figure 3.28a

THE CYTOSKELETON AND RELATED STRUCTURES Microfilaments of actin Enable cells to change shape and move Intermediate filaments Reinforce the cell and anchor cer tain organelles Microtubules give the cell rigidity And provide anchors for organelles and act as tracks for organelle movement

Tubulin subunit Actin subunit Fibrous subunits 25 nm 7 nm Microfilament 10 nm Intermediate filament Microtubule

FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES OF ORGANELLES

4.19 Eukaryotic organelles comprise four functional categories

Eukar yotic organelles fall into four functional groups

All four categories work together as an integrated team, producing the emergent properties at the cellular level.

Manufacture: synthesis of macromolecules and transport within the cell. Breakdown: elimination and recycling of cellular materials. Energy processing: conversion of energy from one form to another. Support, movement, and communication: maintenance of cell shape, anchorage and movement of organelles, and relationships with extracellular environments

THE END