Nature of measurement

Measurements are trials to determine the true value of a particular physical quantity The difference between the true value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurement is the error To measure is to make an acceptable estimate. A suitable instrument must be used

An estimate of the value of a quantity is made before deciding on the right measuring instrument to be used.

 It is very important to choose an appropriate instrument for measuring a physical quantity We need to consider its magnitude and then choose a suitable instrument The magnitude of the quantity should not exceed the max capacity of the instrument The instrument must be sensitive enough to detect and give a meaningful measurement of the quantity Eg: (i) metre rule length of a book (ii) measuring tape length of a table

Measuring instruments
(a) Vernier callipers

Internal jaw : measuring inner dimensions External jaw : measuring outer dimensions Stem : measuring depths

Vernier calliper
To measure lengths of less than 10 cm Suitable to measure internal and external diameter of round objects Its accuracy is up to 0.01 cm Has two scale: (i) main scale : made up of 10 equal parts (ii) vernier scale : 10 parts are equal to 0.9 cm=9mm

How to read??
Reading of MS= 2.1 cm
Reading of VS = 0.05 cm The reading of vernier calliper,X = MS + VS = 2.15 cm

STEP 1

STEP 2

 Step 1: Read off the main scale where the zero of the vernier scale is - Reading of main scale= 2.1 cm
Step 2 -read off the vernier scale where the vernier scale line aligned with the main scale line

- Reading of vernier scale = 0.05 cm

 Reading of MS= 2.1 cm Reading of VS = 0.05 cm The reading of vernier calliper,X = MS + VS = 2.15 cm

 Zero error need to be determined (without object) before using the vernier calliper (a) no zero error

(b) zero error (i) positive zero error

(ii) negative zero error

Zero error = + 0.07 cm

Zero error = - 0.07 cm

 The reading should be corrected if there is zero error Actual reading = measured reading zero error

Positive zero error Without object Zero error=

Negative zero error

Zero error=

With object

Main scale= Vernier scale= Reading= Actual reading

= =

Main scale= Vernier scale= Reading= Actual reading

= =

(b) Micrometer screw gauge

To measure very small object (thickness of a coin, diameter of cooper wire) Accuracy is up to 0.01 mm The presision is higher than vernier calliper Have two part of scale (i) main scale (on the sleeve) (ii) vernier scale (on the thimble)

 Main scale consists of horizontal line in the centre (centre line) and two series of scale line respectively above and below that centre line The distance between two consecutive scale above or below the centre line is 1 mm the distance between the consecutive scale line and the lower scale line is 0.5mm The vernier scale consists of 50 small divisions One part of the vernier scale is 0.01mm

How to read?

STEP 1

STEP 2

 STEP 1 Read off the main scale where the edge of the thimble is, that is 7.5 mm STEP 2 Read off the vernier scale where the line on the vernier scale is aligned with the centre line of the main scale The line 22nd line on the vernier scale is aligned with the centre line of the main scale, that is, 22 x 0.01mm= 0.22 mm

 Reading of MS= 7.5 mm Reading of VS = 0.22 mm Reading of micrometer = MS + VS = 7.5 mm + 0.22mm = 7.72mm

 Zero error need to be determined (without object) before using the micrometer screw gauge (a) no zero error

(b) zero error (i) positive zero error

(ii) negative zero error

Zero error = + 0.01mm

Zero error = - 0.02mm

Positive zero error

Negative zero error

Without object Zero error= Zero error=

With object
MS = VS = Reading = Actual reading = MS = VS = Reading = Actual reading= =

PRECISION, ACCURACY AND SENSITIVITY

Uncertainties could occur in a measurement due to (i) inaccuracy of the measuring instrument (ii) a mistake in the measuring process (iii) a mistake in the scale reading of a measuring instrument The measured value can closely approximate the actual value if we use measuring instruments which have high precision and accuracy

PRECISION
Is the ability of the instrument to measure a quantity in a consistent manner with little or no deviation among measurements Relative deviation is the percentage of mean deviation for a set of measurement.

mean devition relative deviation 100% mean value

Example 1
Experiment number Reading for the rod length(cm) 1 27.0 2 26.0 3 25.5

The table shows the result for the measurement of a specific length of rod. Calculate the relative deviation for this experiment.
Solution: Mean rod length = (27 + 26.0 + 25.5) 3 = 26.2 cm

Reading
27.0 26.0 25.5

Deviation
27.0 26.2 = 0.8 26.0 26.2 = 0.2 25.5 26.2 = 0.7

Mean deviation = (0.8 + 0.2 + 0.7) 3 = 0.567 cm Relative deviation = (0.567 26.2) x 100% = 2.16%

ACCURACY
Is the approximation of the measurement to the actual value for a certain quantity of physics. The measurement is more accurate if its number of significant figures increases
Measuring instrument used for measuring Thickness of a book (cm)

Metre rule Vernier Caliper Micrometer screw gauge

5.2 5.22 5.223

The diagram shows that the micrometer screw gauge is more accurate than the other measuring instrument

 The accuracy of measurement can be increased by (i) taking a number of repeat readings to calculate the mean value of the reading (ii) avoiding the end error or zero errors (iii) taking into account the zero and parallax errors (iv) using more sensitive equipment such as a vernier caliper to replace a ruler

Different between precision and accuracy

1
Not accurate and not precise Accurate and precise

2
Precise but less accurate

Accurate but less precise

Sensitivity
Is the ability to detect small changes in the quantity that is being measured Measuring instruments that have smaller scale parts are more sensitive Sensitive instrument need not necessarily accurate

Between vernier caliper and metre rule when measuring the thickness of a piece of wire, a vernier caliper is more sensitive than a metre rule

Error in measurement
No measurement is exact. All measurements will have some degree of error or uncertainty There are two main types of errors: (i) systematic errors (ii) random error

Systematic error
Is the error of a measurement which causes the measuring quantity to differ from the actual value Originates from the measuring instrument itself Causes all readings that have been obtained to be always bigger or smaller than the actual value Example: (i) zero error - is error of obtaining a certain reading (measurement) when in actuality the measuring instrument should give a zero reading - zero error on ammeter can be avoided by turning the zero adjuster so that the pointer is exactly on the zero mark (ii) end error Can be reduce by (i) conducting the experiment with care (ii) repeating the experiment by using different instrument

Random error
is reading error caused by an incorrect eye position of the observer as per the scale mark while the measurement is been taken Also occur when is a sudden a change of environmental factor temperature, air circulation or lighting

Error in reading = 1.5 cm

Correct reading= 1.6 cm

X
Error in reading = 1.7 cm

Can be reduced by (i) taking repeat readings (ii) measuring the average value of the reading