1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS The term “transducer! has come to he understood as a device or a combination of clement, ‘or chemical state of a substance aad develops an ulus. Although the word “transducer ‘omext of insirumcotation, subsequently it assumed a wide comowtion, across a range of devices y hereby enabling measurement of the same, These devices are treated as mechanical transducers if theie output signals are rechanical by nawre, aid elewrical wansducers if their output signals are cleeieal by nawure. Where a transducer is composed of more than one element, it ean be teated 28 an apen-L00p) system with the elements connected in cascade as shows in Figare 1.3. The fist clemes dlinectly coupled to the system under study is known as the prinary transducer. primary sensing clement, of simply a sensor. A sonsor aay be employed for detecting the exinterce oF ahsence of a conlition, or sensing the depree or level of a physical condition, apart from responding to the condition under measurement, A tansducer may be considered to have accomplished he function of measurement by drawing an insignificant amount of power and ner study whereas a sensor docs it by standing aloof without getting the medium or system under examinaticn, Intensity of radiation avd ors, whereas the temperature of Maid is rmeasired by transducers Both the sensor and the transducer convert one quantity into another ‘quantity of different dimensions. A broader intrpzctaion of these hay been found in Kterature about the function of a transducer, ie. conversion of one physical quantity into another related ‘quantity. The measurand may be convened drsetly into a quantity that serves the function of ication or record, in whch ease comparison with a standard is possible. But in most cases. the measurement is indirect as wansduction wtilies eortain asic furctonal rlaionship between the input ave! output quantities, was initially used in ‘which, of Mecartca saa vse toe} {om | oo10 rranseueses and vamumantaton (Classification of wansducers is possible in several ways depending on the rls they play, their stricture, or the basic phesomena on whieh they ate hase “Treating the transducers an signal converter, i is cary fo classify them as inpet shad output wransducers. Inpur tanaducers are meant for measurement ef womtectical quantities, hence they: are usally converters of non-clectical quantities into quantities, which are elecirical bby mature. They may be also known as instrument transducers, Cuopur insurers operate in evorse fachion sil deliver outpit signals of either Fores, ote, pressure or displacement when the input signals are electrical by mature, They may also he known as power tramlucers if whe ‘output power is considerable das inverse transducers ithe sigoal power at ether end i senal and negligible. Depending on the basic principles of operation. transducers may be known as mechanical, electrical, thermal. magnetic or radiation type transueers A transduser is known Wo consist of more than ons physical slement, in which case iis eated as a system, The patlem of consection of the several element miay recult in an open oop system as in Figure 1.3 or a closed-loop system. The closed-loop configuration offers several advantages in the measurement and hence fecdbacketype transducers arc used in many Tn the field of measurement, the terms sensors and tansdhurs are still used interchangeably. In Chapters 4-8, peimary wansucers are weated as “sensors’ if they enable deal” measurement, The primary tramdecer may be connected in cascage to one oF more ‘transducers so as to finally produce an output signal switable for indication. record or even for transmission to a distant location. Transmitters atc transducer systems that convert the measgrand into a proportionate sigal suitable for transmission over @ pair oF wires (4-20 mA de) oF by means of pneumatic fines (2.07-13.8 Niem Traniponders are teasduccrs which automatically rslease an output signal for ‘transmission 10 a distant point, when imenogated by another signal ‘Most of the ‘cun be classified as either micchanical or elsctical ype. A large ‘number of mechanical transducer are in wie for measuring the process quamttis, either Because of theit low cost oF thei inherent Kafely- But many of them are now use ia conjunction ‘with the electrical transducers and, wRenever possible, the primary and secondary gransdvcers ate replaced by a single electrical wansducer. "Although mest of the sensors aid transducers are analog type with thcir ouput signals being cither mechanical or clecricaly the rols of computers in tke moxlem instrumentation and ‘control activity is making desipness of uanducers find ways Of obwaining digital sigeals dietly from the tramvducers. Thus transducers that can directly dovclop digital signals are gaining [popularity but, ia their absence. sransducer: whose output signals are ac voltages or pulse trains become the next choice as the number of eyeles of pubes during a certain ieterval of time can be counted. Thus tramalucers are classified as either analog, frequency generating or digital type. Mechanical ransdueees, in spite of some hasic disadvantages. have an appesl of their owe 1oaderive all the bonefits provided by the versatility ofthe clestronis signal-processing cieuitry,Manure tarueeniaton and cumrason 14 AAs far as the wser is concemed, tramudvccrs may be classified to represent the quantity they ae designed to measure. They may be classified as pressure oF force wansducers inrespective af the baie principles of operation, However, it may be of some significance. iev are explicitly known a6 piezoelectric pressure twansddcers ae fesistive displacement lansducers, hereby conveying the type to which they belone. ‘A satiety of scientific phentmens ae utilized for developing the range of trantlucers for lstch conceivable physical or c is desied, after @ thorough undersianding of the system under examination. the range of the amplitude of the measucand. the rate at which itis likely 0 change, the nature the output Signal desired, and he purpose for which the meaeurcmice is undertaken. ‘Some of the relevant sensors and primary mechanical transducers that develop eurput signals si the form of displacement, force or ait pressure. ate briefly deseribed én Chapter & ‘Where a single elemewt cannot funcwon ac an electrical trancdueet. a measuring system is constitted 90 that its euipat ean be converted into a proportionate electrical signal by means Of a secondary electrical wansduce ‘Secondary electrical transdacers ate deseribod in Chapters 6-8. Electrical transducers may be classified a pasive or active lype. Passive tansduces are thase that need ty be excited by lscirical supply in ofdsr to resognise their response to the measurand, Elsetrical circuit lements which are resistors, capacitors atid self ac mutial inductors, constitute the group of Passive (rapsducers, Active wansducers are those that fanetion as ney converters, They dave a ccrtin amount of energy From the medium or system unde study and convert it iat clecrieal Signal inthe form of voltage or eumrent A thermocouple i an ative wansducer.Ineloes not need ‘av cxtemmal source of elcetical supply, it keel arts asa source of emf. A closed-loop system ean be constiued 19 srve as a transducer system, having cerain decided) advantages. Such “ransdcers ate hnown as feedback tranidhcers and are biotly covered in Chaplce 8 ‘The basic characteristics thal a wansducer shoul possess and the way 1s performance is ted and specified are discussed in Section 4.5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS An imrument may be dexigned 10 simply indicate the Vale of the measurand under static ‘conditions or rovord and repreiice the Variation of the messarand with dime truthfully, om a tnosing chart by means ofa pon. The characteristics of the instrument may have to be evaluated S0-as to judge the suitability of each forthe fenction For which itis designed. Performance characteristics ate divided inte tuo groups: (a) static characteristics, and (b) dynamic characteristics, Insruments having satisfaciiy staie characteristics may also he used under dynamic conditions provided they savsfy afew criteria ut certain transducers ancl instances fare meant for ine under dyaimic conditions only and are considered unsaitable for staticthe 198s, Advanced systems Were ater developed fram pio- ‘orypes und were built for special military operations that included detecting H-Bombs or Ressian submarines that ‘were lost at sea (Blondel 2003, 2009), This group also pro- daced the first and only working Angle Look Soar that ‘could trace objects while looking under the vessel Ie 1960. the fist intriaced commercial shdescan system ‘was the Kelvin Hughes “Transit Sonar", a modified echo. sounder with a single-chanocl, pole-mourmed, fan-Beam transducer, By 1963, Dr. Harold Edgenon, Eawant Curley, and Joh Yules used a conical-beam | 2kHe sidescan sonar to find the sunken Vineyard Lightship in Buzzards Bay 1 tarry of Modern Stor Mapai ee nescenas ee incaeees” cuistenmnet erie an 1.2.2. Echo Sounder Reflection (Single and Multibeam) and Seismic Mapping Techniques cho sounter technology i an acoustic seattoor mapping techoigue that rans pulse of sound det dows from the Botom of surveying sesech. The pale of sound traels down trough the wate medium. bounces Pte scar ‘bd andthe raves apa until the reflections bead nd recoded bythe echo under. The echo soutder receding ‘device logs how much time the pulse of sound testo ave‘ter then can he calle ving th or time /2sapeatosoundin water ‘The speed of sound i waters sometines assumed be [Te2444700' per sccondo 1 Shen por scond) were Office's Cater Tales or by deploying sound velocity poke Ink he weer (Masa 1989: Verook nd McG 199). ‘Geman iventoepysicis Alexander Beh (1880-1952) tas cn ccna or the ane of the echo sounde (Ge adevice whe For measuring dep the sca. a ell dnsances and Headings of shige obacles By means of Iuhorsiory in Vienna, Astin, Bohm condocted experiments withthe propigaton of sound though wane. He ted to exci an icebors detection system wins rected sound trans afer the Tune iss enced co 18 Ape 1912 He conca, bonever that ected sug wane wer nt ‘sable forthe detection of icebergs. bat rather for meas fefsted them well (Oficer 1958: Taylor Smith and Ui 1965) Tha, echo sung ws Berit the meer ra 1920 the Behm Ext Sounding Company was stated 42 sesmcreaie the nv nvm Xe 2010) Exo sounde-bsed techies. rai ese or fh ‘ry purposes and bye rey are a late fol. epee ee ESpcacece sore Heceie Seer ‘Noche Sant fo a Some Maw an Fal‘las aig. asa of the seabod a relive shortime period ‘wih a high spatial resolution. As shown in mpl sais ‘cowutic echo soundings rllcted by the seafloor eieabn ‘more inrmatian than jst the wate dep (Diack 197: Flood 1960: Scanlon 1989). The amenity and shape of & turning acoustic signal is affecad hy a amber of fata Including primarily sediment grain size and sorting, seabed roughnows Bedforns, apd pecnence.concontaion a ype ‘tei funa and ora (Flood 1980; Taylor Seth and Li 1966), For example the hatder of rougher the setlor, the more energy is scattered back to the transducer and vice ‘versa (Verbeek and MeGee 1995), Theroloe, echo sounder Iso classcation syste ae une 10 reveal geomoe phalogical srcture of the scaboitom. which are cempmed 1 aniy of sin Sastsormapging of savious types of tot sediments and rigid structures (aod 1980; Seaalon 1989s, Processing the acoustic data can Be done in variety of ‘ways, One example i the QTC VIEW system. which only ues te fst return ceo ftom the seafloor and analyzes the shape ofthe echo wit a eres of Eve slgcths (Fac 80: Xw 2010), These algorithms chancterize the wave: Form by sing Energy and spectral components thereby. yielding approximately 166 escripiors for cach

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