HALAMAN PENGESAHAN
Semarang, 2017
Asisten Pengampu
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PRAKATA
Puji syukur kehadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa yang telah memberikan rahmat
dan hidayah-Nya sehingga laporan Praktikum Bioproses dapat diselesaikan
dengan lancar dan sesuai dengan harapan.
Laporan ini diperuntukkan untuk memenuhi salah satu tugas mata kuliah
Praktikum Bioproses. Adapun isi laporan ini adalah pembahasan mengenai hasil
percobaan dari praktikum Minyak.
Berbagai dukungan dan doa sehingga penyusun dapat menyelesaikan
laporan ini. Untuk itu penyusun mengucapkan terimakasih kepada:
1. Dr. –Ing. Silviana, S.T., M.T. selaku Penanggung jawab Laboratorium
Mikrobiologi Industri,
2. Jufriyah, S.T. selaku PLP Laboratorium Mikrobiologi Industri,
3. Iqbal Ryan R. selaku koordinator asisten Laboratorium Mikrobiologi
Industri,
4. Nur ‘Aini Hamada selaku Asisten Pengampu materi Minyak,
5. Asisten-asisten Laboratorium Mikrobiologi Industri, dan
6. Teman-teman yang telah membantu baik dalam segi waktu maupun
motivasi.
Laporan ini merupakan laporan yang saat ini dapat diajukan. Namun, pasti
masih banyak kekurangan yang mendasar pada laporan ini dan perlu diperbaiki.
Oleh karena itu, kritik dari pembaca sangat diharapkan untuk penyempurnaan
laporan ini. Semoga laporan ini dapat bermanfaat.
Penyusun
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RINGKASAN
iv
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DAFTAR ISI
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DAFTAR TABEL
Tabel 2.1. Komposisi kimia daging buah kelapa segar pada 3 tingkatan umur....................... 4
Tabel 2.2 Komposisi asam lemak jenuh ................................................................................. 4
Tabel 2.3 Komposisi asam lemak tak jenuh ........................................................................... 5
Tabel 2.4 Standar baku mutu minyak kelapa berdasarkan SNI 7381:2008 ............................. 5
Tabel 4.1 Hasil Analisis Minyak Kelapa ...............................................................................16
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DAFTAR GAMBAR
vii
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BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
1
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metode ini sangat dipengaruhi oleh jenis subtrat, jenis ragi, dan faktor lingkungan yang
mempengaruhi kehidupan Saccharomyces sp. Oleh sebab itu, perlu dilakukan penelitian
untuk mengetahui bagaimana produksi minyak kelapa dari santan dengan metode
fermentasi, bagaimana hubungan pH dan densitas terhadap waktu, serta untuk
menganalisis hasil minyak kelapa yang didapat secara fisika dan kimia.
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BAB II
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
2.1 Kelapa
Kelapa (Cocos nucifera) termasuk jenis tanaman palma yang mempunyai buah
berukuran cukup besar. Batang pohon kelapa umumnya berdiri tegak dan tidak
bercabang, dan dapat mencapai 10 – 14 meter lebih. Daunnya berpelepah, panjangnya
dapat mencapai 3 – 4 meter lebih dengan sirip-sirip lidi yang menopang tiap helaian.
Buahnya terbungkus dengan serabut dan batok yang cukup kuat (Palungkun, 2004). Buah
kelapa berbentuk bulat yang terdiri dari 35 % sabut (eksokarp dan mesokarp), 12 %
tempurung (endokarp), 28 % daging buah (endosperm), dan 25 % air (Syah, 2005).
Buah kelapa yang sudah tua mengandung kalori yang tinggi, sebesar 359 kal per 100
gram; daging kelapa setengah tua mengandung kalori 180 kal per 100 gram 8 dan daging
kelapa muda mengandung kalori sebesar 68 kal per 100 gram. Sedang nilai kalori rata-
rata yang terdapat pada air kelapa berkisar 17 kalori per 100 gram.
Air kelapa hijau, dibandingkan dengan jenis kelapa lain banyak mengandung tanin
atau antidotum (anti racun) yang paling tinggi. Kandungan zat kimia lain yang menonjol
yaitu berupa enzim yang mampu mengurai sifat racun. Komposisi kandungan zat kimia
yang terdapat pada air kelapa antara lain asam askorbat atau vitamin C, protein, lemak,
hidrat arang, kalsium atau potassium. Mineral yang terkandung pada air kelapa ialah zat
besi, fosfor dan gula yang terdiri dari glukosa, fruktosa dan sukrosa. Kadar air yang
terdapat pada buah kelapa sejumlah 95,5 gram dari setiap 100 gram (Direktorat Gizi
Depkes RI, 1981).
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Tabel 2.1 Komposisi kimia daging buah kelapa segar pada 3 tingkatan umur
Umur buah
Komposisi per 100 g
No. Satuan Setengah
bahan Muda Tua
tua
1. Kalori kal 68,0 180,0 359,0
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5
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d. Pengasaman
Pengasaman merupakan salah satu upaya pembuatan minyak kelapa
dengan cara membuat suasana emulsi (santan) dalam keadaan asam. Asam
memiliki kemampuan untuk memutus ikatan lemak-protein dengan cara
mengikat senyawa yang berikatan dengan lemak. Namun asam yang
dicampurkan ke dalam santan hanya bisa bekerja dengan maksimal bila
kondisi pH (derajat keasamannya) sesuai. Pada proses pembuatan minyak
kelapa, pH yang paling optimal yaitu 4,3.
e. Sentrifugasi
Sentrifugasi merupakan salah satu pembuatan minyak kelapa dengan
cara mekanik. Pembuatan minyak kelapa dengan sentrifugasi dikelompokan
menjadi tiga, yaitu : pembuatan santan, pembuatan minyak kelapa, serta
penyaringan. Pada cara ini krim dimasukan dalam tabung ke dalam sentrifuse.
Pemutusan ikatan lemak protein pada santan dilakukan dengan pemutaran
(pemusingan), yaitu dengan gaya sentrifugal karena berat jenis minyak dan air
berbeda. Setelah dilakukan sentrifugasi, keduanya akan terpisah dengan
sendirinya. Berat jenis minyak lebih ringan dibanding air sehingga minyak
akan terkumpul pada lapisan atas. Kunci dari pembuatan minyak kelapa
dengan sentrifugasi yaitu kecepatan pemutaran, yaitu 20.000 rpm. Di samping
itu faktor waktu juga ternyata menjadi pembatas dalam pemutaran tersebut.
Waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk memutus ikatan lemak-protein dari santan
dengan kecepatan 20.00 rpm yaitu sekitar 15 menit. Alat yang digunakan
untuk memutar santan dinamakan dengan sentrifuge.
f. Enzimatis
Pembuatan minyak kelapa dengan cara enzimatis merupakan
pemisahan minyak dalam santan tanpa pemanasan melainkan dengan bantuan
enzim. Enzim bisadisintetis atau disuplai dari alam. Beberapa jenis enzim
yang bisa digunakan untuk memecah ikatan lipoprotein dalam emulsi lemak
yaitu papain (pepaya), bromelin (nanas), dan enzim protease yang berasal dari
kepiting sungai. Enzim papain banyak yang terdapat dalam getah daun pepaya.
Sementara enzim bromelin banyak terdapat pada bagian bonggol (hatinya)
nanas.
Dengan rusaknya protein maka ikatan lipoprotein dalam santan juga
akan terputus dengan sendirinya. Kemudian, minyak yang diikat oleh ikatan
tersebut akan keluar dan mengumpul menjadi satu. Karena minyak memiliki
masa (berat) jenis lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan air, maka posisinya
kemudian berada paling atas, disusul dengan protein, dan terakhir (bawah)
yaitu air.
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g. Fermentasi
Pembuatan minyak secara fermentasi pada prinsipnya adalah
pengrusakan protein yang menyelubungi globula lemak menggunakan
menggunakan enzim proteolitik. Enzim yang dimaksud adalah enzim yang
dihasilkan oleh mikroorganisme atau tanaman sebagai inokulum. Pada
pembuatan minyak kelapa dengan fermentasi, krim yang didapatkan
dicampurkan dengan ragi. Mikroba yang ada dalam ragi (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae dan Rhyzopus oryzae) ini mempunyai kemampuan menghasilkan
enzim protease dan lipase yang dapat menghidrolisis minyak dengan didukung
oleh kadar air yang tinggi
Kondisi optimum yang diperlukan agar mikroba dapat tumbuh antara
lain suhu berkisar antara 25 – 30 °C, keadaan asam yaitu pada Ph 4 – 4,5.
Mikroba, khususnya khamir, dapat tumbuh dengan baik pada kondisi anaerob
karena berdasarkan sifat metabolismenya, termasuk kelompok khamir
fermentatif yang dapat melakukan fermentasi alkohol yaitu memecah glukosa
melalui jalur glikolisis (Fardiaz, 1989; Buckle et al., 1987; Pelczar et al.,
1981).
Ada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi mikroba dalam melakukan
fermentasi yaitu:
1) Waktu
Semakin lama waktu fermentasi, hasil yang diperoleh semakin besar
sampai titik optimum dimana bahan telah habis terfermentasi. Pada fase ini
khamir mengalami kematian masih ada sel-sel yang dihasilkan akan tetapi
kecepatan pertumbuhannya lebih rendah dari sel-sel yang mati.
2) Cahaya
Mikroorganisme kebanyakan tidak mampu untuk melakukan fotosintesis,
oleh karena itu mikroorganisme pada umumnya tidak memerlukan cahaya,
bahkan cahaya ini dianggap sebagai faktor penghambat bagi
kehidupannya. Radiasi yang timbul akibat cahaya merupakan bahaya bagi
kehidupannya.
3) Suhu
Suhu optimum untuk pertumbuhan dan perkembangbiakan adalah 28 – 30
o
C. Pada waktu fermentasi terjadi kenaikan panas.
4) Perbandingan jumlah ragi
Dalam proses fermentasi, perbandingan yang tepat antara jumlah ragi
dengan skim sebagai nutrisi akan berpengaruh terhadap hasil fermentasi.
Hal ini disebabkan oleh optimalnya jumlah dan waktu sel ragi
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9
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BAB III
METODE PRAKTIKUM
Kelapa parut
Air Diperas Santan
Skim
Dicampur dan Campuran
Air Kelapa disterilkan dalam steril
urea dan gula autoclave
Campuran steril
Ragi atau sari buah Ditutup al. foil Starter
sesuai variabel dan diinkubasi
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3.2.2 Alat
1. Erlenmeyer 250 ml 8 buah
2. Pipet tetes 2 buah
3. Beaker glass 100 ml 1 buah
4. Gelas ukur 100 ml 1 buah
5. Inkubator goyang 1 buah
6. Cuvet 5 buah
7. Neraca analitik 1 buah
8. Autoclave 1 buah
9. Alumunium foil
10. Indikator pH
11. Pengaduk kaca 1 buah
12. Centrifuge 1 buah
13. Statif 1 buah
14. Klem 1 buah
15. Buret 1 buah
16. Picnometer 50 ml 1 buah
Keterangan:
1. Klem
2. Statif
3. Buret
4. Erlenmeyer
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Jika tercium bau khas minyak kelapa segar dan tidak tengik maka hasil
dinyatakan “normal”. Jika tercium bau asing maka hasil dinyatakan “tidak
normal”.
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BAB IV
HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN
4 Run 1
pH
3 Run 2
Run 3
2
Run 4
1
0
Hari ke-1 Hari ke-2 Hari ke-3
Waktu Fermentasi
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Sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa 4 run dari hasil percobaan kami sesuai
dengan teori yaitu pH mengalami penurunan selama fermentasi karena terbentuknya
asam lemak bebas sehingga menurunkan pH run tersebut.
1
0.995 Run 1
0.99 Run 2
0.985 Run 3
0.98 Run 4
0.975
Hari ke-1 Hari ke-2 Hari ke-3
Waktu Fermentasi
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16
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17
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BAB V
PENUTUP
5.1 Kesimpulan
1. Metode pembuatan minyak kelapa secara fermentasi dengan ragi roti, ragi tempe,
sari buah pepaya, dan sari buah kiwi dapat diterapkan untuk menghasilkan minyak
kelapa.
2. pH setiap run semakin menurun dari pH awal 6 kemudian stabil pada rentang pH 4-5
karena terbentuknya asam lemak bebas selama proses fermentasi.
3. Densitas minyak kelapa semakin bertambah seiring dengan semakin lamanya waktu
fermentasi minyak kelapa karena mikroorganisme mengalami fase pertumbuhan.
4. Minyak kelapa didapatkan pada perlakuan run 2, 3, dan 4 memiliki warna dan bau
minyak kelapa yang normal. Minyak kelapa pada run 1 didapatkan memiliki warna
yang normal tetapi baunya tidak normal karena mengalami rancidity.
5.2 Saran
1 Perhitungan pH lebih baik dilakukan menggunakan pH meter.
2 Neraca analitik sebaiknya jumlahnya ditambah untuk meningkatkan kecepatan
pekerjaan.
3 Sebaiknya dalam inkubasi, sampel diletakkan dalam ruangan yang telah
dikondisikan untuk pertumbuhan mikroogranisme yang optimum.
18
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DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Al-Qadiri, Hamzah M et.al. 2007. Studying of The Bacterial Growth Phases Using Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Multivariate Analysis. J. of Rapid Methods
& Automation in Microbiology, 16, 73-89.
Apetrei, Constantin. 2015. Corn and Coconut Oil Antioxidant Properties, Uses and Health
Benefits. New York: Nova Publisher.
Badan Standardisasi Nasional.(2008). SNI 7381:2008, Minyak Kelapa Virgin (VCO). Jakarta
: Badan Standardisasi Nasional.
Banzon, J.A. and Velasco J.R. 1982. Coconut Production and Utilization. PCRDF Manila.
Buckle, K.A. 1987. Ilmu Pangan. Universitas Indonesia Press. Jakarta.
Direktorat Gizi Depkes R.I 1981. Daftar Komposisi Bahan Makanan. Bhratara Karya Aksara,
Jakarta.
Enig, M.G. 1996. Health and Nutritional Benefits from Coconut Oil: An Important
Functional Food for the 21st century, AVOC (ASEAN Vegetable Oils Club) Lauric
Oils Symposium, Ho Chi Min, Vietnam, 25 April 1996.
Fardiaz, S. 1989. Mikrobiologi Pangan. Jurusan Teknologi Pangan dan Gizi. Fateta IPB.
Bogor.
Ketaren, S. 2008. Pengantar teknologi minyak dan lemak pangan. Jakarta: UI-Press.
Maharani, D.M., Bintoro, N., dan Rahardjo, B. 2012. Kinetika Perubahan Ketengikan
(Rancidity) Kacang Goreng Selama Proses Penyimpanan. AGRITECH, Vol. 32, No. 1.
Meisner, Herman dan Karen Tenney. 1997. pH As an Indicator of Free Fatty Acid Release
from Adipocytes. J. Lipid Research, 18, 774-776.
Palungkun, R., 2004. Aneka Produk Olahan Kelapa. Penebar Swadaya, Jakarta
Pelczar, M.J. & E.C.S. Chan. 1986. Penterjemah , Ratna Siri Hadioetomo dkk. Dasar-Dasar
Mikrobiologi 1. Universitas Indonesia Press. Jakarta.
Somaatmadja, Dardjo. 1984. Perkembangan Mutu Minyak Atsiri. Prosiding Seminar Minyak
Atsiri II. Balai Penelitian Kimia : Bogor.
Suhardijono dan Syamsiah, S. 1987. Bioproses Dalam Industri Pangan. PAU Pangan & Gizi
dan Penerbit Liberty, Yogyakarta.
Syah et al. 2005. Manfaat dan Bahaya Bahan Tambahan Pangan. Himpunan Alumni
Fakultas Teknologi Pertanian IPB. Bogor.
Thieme, J.G. 1968. Coconut Oil Processing. Paper, Food Agriculture Organization of The
United Nation. Rome.
Yakub, Nurhidayati Agustin Arifah. 2014. Pengaruh Pemberian Minyak Goreng Deep
Frying Terhadap Gambaran Histologi Ginjal Tikus Putih Strain Wistar. Tugas Akhir.
Fakultas Kedokteran, Universitas Muhammadiyah, Malang.
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Zubaedah, S. 2010. Bakteri: Kajian tentang Beberapa Aspek Biologis. Jurusan Pendidikan
Biologi, FMIPA Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang.
20
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LEMBAR PERHITUNGAN
Menghitung W
m picno kosong = 30,42 gr
m picno + aquadest = 82,78 gr
m aquadest = 52,36 gr
𝜌 Aquadest = 0,996 gr/ml
m (82,78−30,42)gr
ν= = = 52,57 ml
𝜌 0,996 gr/ml
Menghitung Densitas
Hari ke-I
m picno kosong = 17,55 gr
m picno + aquadest = 62,01 gr
m aquadest = 44,46 gr
𝜌 Aquadest = 0,996 gr/ml
m (44,46−17,55)𝑔𝑟
ν= = = 27,018 ml
𝜌 0,996 𝑔𝑟/𝑚𝑙
m (44,24−17,55)gr
Densitas Run 1 = = = 0,98785 gr/ml
𝜌 27,018 ml
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m (44,58−17,55)gr
Densitas Run 2 = = = 1,00044 gr/ml
𝜌 27,018 ml
m (44,61−17,55)gr
Densitas Run 3 = = = 1,00155 gr/ml
𝜌 27,018 ml
m (44,64−17,55)gr
Densitas Run 4 = = = 1,00266 gr/ml
𝜌 27,018 ml
Hari ke-2
m picno kosong = 30,45 gr
m picno + aquadest = 82,75 gr
m aquadest = 52,3 gr
𝜌 Aquadest = 0,996 gr/ml
m 52,3 𝑔𝑟
ν= = = 52,51 ml
𝜌 0,996 𝑔𝑟/𝑚𝑙
m (82,53−30,45)gr
Densitas Run 1 = = = 0,9918 gr/ml
𝜌 52,51 ml
m (83,09−30,45)gr
Densitas Run 2 = = = 1,002474 gr/ml
𝜌 52,51 ml
m (83,11−30,45)gr
Densitas Run 3 = = = 1,00286 gr/ml
𝜌 52,51 ml
m (83,10−30,45)gr
Densitas Run 4 = = = 1,00267 gr/ml
𝜌 52,51 ml
Hari ke-3
m picno kosong = 17,69 gr
m picno + aquadest = 44,55 gr
m aquadest = 26,76 gr
𝜌 Aquadest = 0,996 gr/ml
m 26,76 gr
ν= = = 26,867 ml
𝜌 0,996 gr/ml
m (44,36−17,69)gr
Densitas Run 1 = = = 0,9928 gr/ml
𝜌 26,867 ml
m (44,72−17,69)gr
Densitas Run 2 = = = 1,00618 gr/ml
𝜌 26,867 ml
m (44,66−17,69)gr
Densitas Run 3 = = = 1,00395 gr/ml
𝜌 26,867 ml
m (44,65−17,69)gr
Densitas Run 4 = = = 1,00357 gr/ml
𝜌 26,867 ml
22
80 H.M. AL-QADIRI ET AL.
might be due to: (1) cell lysis leading to leakage of the cellular materials
outside the cytoplasm causing a net increase in absorbance; or (2) the presence
of the dead cells on the membrane filter; these could not be enumerated on
TSA but at the same time would have contributed to the microbial cell density
on the membrane. However, in spite of the higher absorbance during the death
phase, the spectral pattern for death phase was also characterized by a relative
depletion of major cellular components (particularly in region II) including
proteins, nucleic acids and most predominantly polysaccharides (1100–
950 cm-1) due to the destruction of the cell wall and cell membrane. The
depletion of the cellular components might be associated to the reduction in
the metabolic activity during the death phase.
Spectral binning, smoothing and second derivative transformation were
performed before multivariate statistical analysis to: (1) detect more details
about bacterial biochemical structure by increasing the number of discrimina-
tive features associated with the bacterial spectra (Pedone et al. 2003; Sandt
et al. 2003); (2) reduce spectral pattern overlapping; and (3) characterize and
amplify the related variations among bacterial FT-IR spectra since unproc-
essed spectral patterns look similar (Kansiz et al. 1999; Lin et al. 2005).
Spectral normalization was conducted to balance the differences in absorbance
as a prerequisite to PCA and SIMCA analysis (Holt et al. 1995; Lin et al.
2003).
The composition and distribution of the biochemical components in bac-
terial cells are different during growth phases and FT-IR spectroscopy provides
a method and an indication of which specific biochemical changes occur
during different growth phases. The 15-point second order derivatization of
region I for both strains is shown in Figs. 3 and 4. After transformation, the
spectral variations (1800–1300 cm-1) among the four growth phases become
more distinctive for both strains. Major variations could be observed in the log,
the stationary and the death phases which makes these stages obviously dis-
tinguishable from each other and from the lag phase because of unique amide
I and amide II bands (proteins) in the range of ~1650 and ~1540 cm-1.
However, relatively minor variations could also be observed in the range of
~1455 and ~1398 cm-1 from CH3 and CH2 asymmetric and symmetric defor-
mation of proteins.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the 15-point second derivative transformation of
bacterial spectra in the fingerprint region (region II). The major differences
might be seen in the P=O asymmetric stretch of the phosphodiester backbone
of nucleic acids (~1242 cm-1), P=O symmetric stretch of the nucleic acid
ribose or deoxyribose moieties (~1080 cm-1) (Kansiz et al. 1999; Filip and
Hermann 2001), and C–O–C stretching vibration of cell wall and cell mem-
brane polysaccharides (Kansiz et al. 1999; Filip and Hermann 2001). There
were very clear differences in polysaccharide spectral features between the log
dan habitus tanaman lebih tinggi. Jenis kelapa dalam merupakan jenis kelapa yang
paling banyak di Indonesia. Berdasarkan warna buahnya, jenis kelapa dalam yang
paling banyak terdapat di Indonesia adalah kelapa hijau (varietas Viridis), kelapa
merah cokelat (varietas Rubescens) dan kelapa kelabu cokelat (varietas Macrocaps).
b. Buah Kelapa
Buah kelapa berbentuk bulat memanjang dengan ukuran kurang lebih sebesar
kepala manusia. Berdasarkan umurnya, buah kelapa dapat dibagi menjadi tiga
golongan, yaitu kelapa muda, kelapa setengah tua dan kelapa tua. Buah kelapa muda
berumur 6-8 bulan, kelapa setengah tua berumur 10-11 bulan, dan kelapa tua
berumur 11-13 bulan (Nainggolan dan Sitinjak 1977). Komposisi buah kelapa tua
terdiri dari 35 persen sabut, 12 persen tempurung, 28 persen daging buah, dan 25
persen air buah (Djatmiko 1983).
Komposisi kimia daging buah kelapa bervariasi menurut tingkat kematangan dan
varietas buah kelapa. Daging buah kelapa kaya akan lemak dan karbohidrat, serta
protein dalam jumlah sedang. Kadar lemak tertinggi terdapat pada daging buah
kelapa tua. Adapun komposisi buah kelapa terdapat pada Tabel 1.
4
Quality Analyses and Authentication of Coconut Oil 133
The various TAG of oils, may be separated and quantified by high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC), according to their carbon numbers (Moreda et al., 2003;
Aitzetmüller et al., 1988). The values obtained can then serve to distinguish them from other
oils or to interpret their properties. For example, the percentage of trilinolein (LLL) was
adopted as criterion to detect the presence of seed oils in olive oils (EEC 2568/91). TAGs are
effectively separated byHPLC on reversed-phase columns, containing silica with chemically
bonded to octadecyl groups (RP-18) as stationary phase. Using acetonitrile as mobilephase,
separation of TAGs occurs according to the chain length and degree of unsaturation of the
fatty acids in the glycerol moiety (Schulte 1981). Other solvents were used as mobile phase.
One of the most frequently employed is acetone indifferent proportions. In the standard
official methods, acetone/acetonitrile (1 volume: 1 volume) is used as mobile phase (IUPAC
1987; EEC 2472/97).
Regarding the differences between oils, only oils that are rich in one fatty acid contain
much monoacid triacylglycerol, for example, olive oil, linseed oil and sunflower oil
containing triolein (OOO), trilinolein (LLL) and trilinolenin (LnLnLn) (Reske et al., 1997).
The triacylglycerol compositions of several oils are presented in the Table 1.
Fatty acids are usually analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC). This method is
applicable to oils containing fatty acids with chain length in the range C14 to C24. GLC
analysis of fatty acids is performed following their conversion to methyl ester derivatives.
Columns with polar phases are used, for example polyethylene glycol stationary phase
(Carbowax) (Jennings 1987).
When samples contain short-chain fatty acids, methods of derivatization have been
proposed, for example benzylation and ter-butyldimethyl silylation (Monseur et al., 1981;
Burger et al., 1990).
Analysis of free fatty acids can be carried out by Gas Chromatography: Flame Ionization
Detection (GC-FID), this technique being an alternative method of analysis (Hajimahmoodi et
134 Irina Mirela Apetrei and Constantin Apetrei
al., 2005; Regulation (EEC) N8 2568/ 91, annex X; Lerma García 2012). Furthermore, other
analytical methods, such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) (Shahidi
2005; Kotani et al., 2002), or 31P-NMR (Dayrit et al., 2008) were also developed for this
purpose.
The use of pre-column HPLC method for the analysis of fatty acid with 2-
nitrophenylhydrazine hydrochloride was reported (Miwa & Yamamoto 1990). After alkaline
hydrolysis of coconut oil free fatty acids are reacted with 2-nitrophenylhydrazine
hydrochloride and then derivatized to corresponding fatty acid hydrazides. Each of the
derivatives was separated on reversed-phase HPLC with isocratic elution and detected at VIS
400 nm (Miwa & Yamamoto 1996). In Table 2 is presented the typical fatty acid composition
of coconut oil.
Determination of Sterols
The methods for the analysis of total sterols in coconut oil involve sample preparation
steps such as saponification, extraction of the neutrals from the soap solution, pre-separation
by preparative thin-layer chromatography, silylation of sterols and GC-FID analysis (ECCR
N8 2568/1991, annex V; Ham et al., 2000).
The major disadvantage of GC is the requirement of thermally stable columns and the
need of chemical derivatization prior to analysis. For this reason, alternative methods were
described based on the use of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) (Santos
et al., 2011; Itoh et al., 1973). In Table 3 are presented the levels of desmethylsterols in crude
coconut oil samples.
Production Methods and Coconut Oil Quality 107
The main method of extraction of coconut oil from copra is by pressing copra using
expellers. Copra is pressed in large expeller presses that generate heat and pressure. The
resultant crude coconut oil is brown and turbid in appearance. This oil can be further purified
by filtering and refining to remove free fatty acids (a breakdown product from the oil), any
remaining moisture, any bad flavor or smell. Coconut oil made this way is the least expensive
of all coconut oils, which is used in food preparations. Pressing is also used to produce virgin
coconut oil in the dry extraction process. The quality of copra used in the extraction of virgin
coconut oil is of high quality and free of fungal contaminations. Special driers can be used to
prepare copra for this purpose and the brown portion of copra is not used to prepare virgin
coconut oil by pressing copra. Here, the pressing can be considered as cold pressing, since the
temperature is controlled.
Solvent Extraction
A solvent can be used in the extraction of coconut oil from copra. n-Hexane is considered
to be the most efficient solvent for oil extraction as oils easily dissolve in hexane. It is the
most suitable solvent also because of the low boiling point, which makes it easier to remove
from the oil. It is also a relatively low cost solvent. However, its flammability, mild toxicity,
explosiveness and environmental impacts are the concerns of industrial scale solvent
extraction of coconut oil. The solvent extraction leaves low levels of solvent residue in the
oil, which is safe but undesirable for food purposes. During the extraction, the oil in copra is
leached out with the solvent and the insoluble copra meal is retained unaffected. The
efficiency of extraction depends upon the temperature of the solvent, the ratio of the solvent
to copra meal, size and the porosity of the copra particles and contact time with the solvent.
Oil extraction by solvent extraction is more suitable for oil seeds containing relatively low
amounts of oil. As copra contains about 70% oil, mechanical extraction by pressing is more
efficient and economical. In addition to the full solvent extraction, prepress solvent extraction
can also be used. In the mechanical extraction by pressing under moderate pressure, the oil
content of copra can be reduced to nearly 15%. This remaining oil can be further extracted by
solvent extraction. The resultant mixture of solvent extraction includes solvent, oil solution
and extracted coconut meal. The solvent in the meal is removed by heating to boil off the
volatile solvent and the solvent is recovered by condensation. The remaining solvent in the oil
solution is removed by distillation. Traces of solvent left in the meal and the oil are removed
by steam-stripping under reduced pressure. Various high temperature steps in the solvent
extraction process may thermally degrade the oil to a very small extent and about 500-1000
ppm concentrations of solvent will also remain in the oil after purification.
Production Methods and Coconut Oil Quality 109
One traditional way of extracting coconut oil from the coconut milk emulsion is by
prolonged heating of the emulsion. Heating breaks down and deposits proteins at the bottom
of the container. When the heating is continued, water in the emulsion evaporates. Due to its
high boiling temperature, coconut oil does not evaporate significantly during this process.
Finally, the coconut oil can be separated by decanting from the residue containing proteins,
carbohydrates and other substances. The resultant coconut oil gives a nice coconut aroma and
the oil is free of water. This oil can be kept for a very long time without forming oxidation
products that cause rancidity. However, due to caramelization and other reactions such as
Maillard reaction, the coconut oil produced by this method has a light yellowish color. One
disadvantage of this method is the high amount of energy needed and relatively longer period
of time taken to evaporate water from the coconut milk emulsion. In addition, there are no
machines designed to produce coconut oil in industrial scale using this method. Therefore,
this method is limited to the preparation of coconut oil in small scale for household
consumption.
Centrifugation Process
The coconut milk emulsion prepared by pressing fresh coconut kernels contains
approximately 40% oil. In the production of high quality virgin coconut oil, the pressing
should be done using a special machine of which both the pressing plate and the sleeve are
cooled by chilled water. Using a centrifuge, the cream is then concentrated to yield a higher
percentage of oil while the proteins and water-soluble substances are separated out. Coconut
oil produced by this method has a very light coconut flavor and the texture of coconut oil is
extremely mild and smooth. In some instances, coconut milk is chilled at 10C for 10 h to
solidify the lipids. Then the aqueous layer is discarded and the lipid block is allowed to stand
at 30C until it dissolves completely. Then the mixture is centrifuged and the oil layer is
separated. The coconut oil produced by this centrifugation method is considered to be one of
the highest quality coconut oils. These oils are expensive and usually labeled as extra virgin
coconut oil.
Fermentation Process
Fermentation method is the least consistent of all the coconut oil production processes.
Therefore, the quality of coconut oil produced by this method varies for different producers.
The oil has to be further purified for food purposes. In the preparation of coconut oil by this
method, fresh coconut kernel is first grated and then coconut milk or cream is pressed out
from the white flesh. This milk is placed into vats or buckets and allowed to ferment at about
37C. The enzymes and bacteria break the proteins in emulsion and separate the milk into
different layers which include a top protein curd layer, a coconut oil layer underneath, another
curd layer and a layer of water. The protein curd on the top can be removed and then the oil
layer can be siphoned.
Comparative Physicochemical Characteristics of Virgin Coconut Oil Vermont P. Dia et al.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The dry method involved the following steps: The
ground coconut meat was dried at 40 C using a cabi-
Materials net dryer for 24 h. The dried coconut meat was stored
Coconuts from two varieties of coconut, namely, La- inside a freezer for 1 wk before use and the coconut
guna tall (LT) and Catigan green dwarf (CGD), and oil was extracted from the dried meat using a coconut
their hybrid were obtained from the Philippine Coco- oil extractor. The maximum temperature of the oil as
nut Authority, Zamboanga Research Center, it got out of the expeller was measured to be 47.0 C.
Zamboanga City. These coconuts were used to pro- The extracted oil was centrifuged at 8000 x g. The
duce VCO by the desiccated coconut meat-40 C in- water clear virgin oil was collected by decantation.
cubation dry method and the coconut milk-40 C incu- This method is termed as “desiccated coconut meat-
bation wet method described below. The nuts used 40 C incubation method.”
were mature (from 11 to 13 mo old after pollination). For the first wet method, coconut milk was first
The coconuts were taken at random from 25 trees extracted from freshly ground meat. Coconut milk was
and were carefully chosen so that spoiled nuts would incubated for 24 h in a 40 C water bath to hasten
not be included in the preparation of VCO. Spoiled separation of the cream from the skim milk following
nuts were differentiated from sound and mature nuts the procedure described by Del Rosario and Mabesa
by a softening that occurs in the eye of the kernel and (1976), Del Rosario (1979) and Banzon and Velasco
by foul odor (Banzon et al. 1990). Samples of coco- (1982). The oil layer that separated was further cen-
nuts for the coconut milk-freeze-and-thaw cold pro- trifuged at 8000 x g for 15 min to separate water clear
cessing method were obtained from a local market in virgin coconut oil from the non-oil components. This
Los Baños, Laguna. Six commercial VCO and method is termed “coconut milk-40 C incubation
RBDCO products were obtained from different manu- method.”
facturers. The commercial samples were packaged For the second wet method, the coconut milk was
in PET bottles; in some of the samples, the fatty acid extracted as before and subjected to approximately 4
composition of the oil had been printed on the labels. cycles of freeze and thaw to obtain the oil from the
Manufacturing date was not printed on the label of coconut milk. The freeze and thaw method involved
the commercial samples. refrigeration of coconut milk at 4 C for 4 h and allow-
All the chemicals used were of analytical grade. ing the frozen coconut milk to thaw at ambient tem-
perature for 2 h. The oil that separated was scooped
using a spoon and was centrifuged at 8000 x g to
Production of Virgin Coconut Oil further remove suspended particles. This method is
Three processing methods representative of methods termed “coconut milk-freeze-and thaw method.”
commonly used by commercial VCO producers were
used to produce VCO in the laboratory. For all pro- Physicochemical Analysis
cesses, the coconut was deshelled and pared using The melting point, specific gravity, saponification num-
the coconut processing equipment available at the pi- ber and iodine value of the laboratory produced and
lot plant of the Institute of Food Science and Technol- commercial VCO and RBDCO were determined fol-
ogy, College of Agriculture, University of the Philip- lowing standard procedures (AOAC 2000). All analy-
pines Los Baños. The coconut meat was carefully ses were done in triplicate.
removed from the shell so that no part of the testa
was included in the sample. The coconut meat was Quality Characteristics
soaked in a 1% sodium metabisulfite solution for about The moisture content, free fatty acid number and per-
1 h to prevent browning (Fennema 1996) and ground oxide value of VCO and RBDCO were determined
to pass a 10-mesh sieve. The stainless steel and elec- following standard procedures (AOAC 2000). All
tric-operated coconut meat grinder and coconut oil analyses were done in triplicate.
extractor were fabricated by the Prinsena Machine
Shop in San Pablo, Laguna.
tua, sedangkan kandungan kalori dan lemak minyak adalah reaksi asam-asam lemak
mencapai maksimal pada buah kelapa tua tidak jenuh yang menyusun lemak sebagai
(Heyana, dkk, 2000). radikal bebas dengan molekul oksigen
Minyak kelapa memiliki sejumlah fungsi sehingga menyebabkan minyak menjadi
yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam kehidupan lebih cepat tengik dan menyebabkan
manusia. Disamping sebagai bahan pangan penurunanan kualitas minyak kelapa,
yang penting dalam penggorengan, minyak Winarno (2004).
kelapa juga baik digunakan untuk Menurut ketaren (2008), ada tiga
meningkatkan kesehatan masyarakat. Maka penyebab ketengikan dalam lemak yaitu
tidak heran minyak kelapa selalu menjadi ketengikan oleh oksidasi, (oxidative
incaran banyak orang. Selain itu minyak juga ranciditas), ketengikan oleh enzim
merupakan sumber energi dimana satu (enzymatic ranciditas), dan ketengikan oleh
gram minyak dapat menghasilkan 9 kkal
proses hidrolisa (hidrolitic ranciditas).
(Winarno, 2004).
Ketengikan oleh oksidasi terjadi karena
Meskipun penggunaan minyak kelapa
proses oksidasi oleh oksigen udara terhadap
yang diolah secara modern sejauh ini masih
asam lemak tidak jenuh dalam lemak.
aman bagi kesehatan namun sebagian
Proses oksidasi dapat terjadi pada suhu
masyarakat Maluku terutama yang
kamar, dan selama proses pengolahan
berdomosili didaerah pedesaan masih
menggunakan suhu tinggi. Hasil oksidasi
tergantung pada minyak yang diolah secara
lemak dalam bahan pangan tidak hanya
tradisional karena mudah dilakukan serta
mengakibatkan rasa dan bau tidak enak,
tidak memerlukan banyak biaya. Disamping
tetapi juga dapat menurunkan nilai gizi,
alasan ekonomi karena harga minyak kelapa
karena kerusakan vitamin (karoten dan
yang diolah secara modern memiliki harga
tokofenol) dan asam lemak esensial dalam
lebih mahal, tindakan ini juga untuk
lemak.
memanfaatkan buah kelapa yang bertumpuk
Kerusakan lemak yang utama adalah
dan sulit dipasarkan pada waktu musim
timbulnya bau dan rasa tengik yang disebut
panen. Minyak mengandung asam lemak tak proses ketengikan. Hal ini disebabkan oleh
jenuh dan beberapa asam lemak esensial otooksidasi radikal asam lemak tidak jenuh
seperti asam oleat, linoleat dan linolenat dalam lemak. Radikal bebas dengan O2
(Sulistyo et al, 2006). membentuk peroksida aktif yang dapat
Pembuatan minyak kelapa dengan membentuk hidroperoksida yang bersifat
fermentasi merupakan salah satu alternatif tidak stabil dan mudah pecah menjadi
untuk mengatasi masalah pada pembuatan senyawa dengan rantai karbon yang lebih
dengan cara tradisional. Beberapa faktor pendek oleh radiasi energi tinggi, energi
mempengaruhi produksi minyak kelapa panas, katalis logam, atau enzim. Senyawa-
secara fermentasi diantaranya pH, senyawa dengan rantai C lebih pendek ini
konsentrasi inokulum, suhu, bahan baku adalah asam-asam lemak, aldehida-
kelapa, dan lamanya fermentasi. Sehingga aldehida, dan keton yang bersifat volatile
perlu dilakukan pengkajian untuk dan menimbulkan bau tengik pada lemak
mendapatkan kondisi optimal proses (Winarno, 2004).
sehingga dihasilkan jumlah dan kualitas Mutu dari suatu minyak dapat diketahui
minyak kelapa yang lebih optimal. Selain itu dari rasa dan aromanya. Salah satunva
dalam proses pembuatan minyak kelapa adalah ketengikan atau adanya Asam
secara fermentasi minyak yang dihasilkan Peroksida. Peroksida merupakan suatu
lebih banyak dan warnanya lebih jernih tanda adanya pemecahan atau kerusakan
(Sukmadi dan Nugroho, 2002). pada minvak karena terjadi oksidasi (kontak
Pembuatan minyak kelapa dengan dengan udara) yang menyebabkan bau
fermentasi lebih kurang di diamkan selama aroma tengik pada minyak. Ukuran dari
beberapa jam. Selama proses fermentasi ketengikan dapat diketahui dengan
berlangsung terjadi suksesi (pergantian) menentukan bilangan peroksida. Semakin
mikroba dalam emulsi santan dan terjadi tinggi bilangan peroksida maka semakin
perubahan keasaman (pH). Perubahan pH tinggi pula tingkat ketengikan suatu minyak
merupakan salah satu faktor yang (ASA, 2000).
mempercepat oksidasi minyak. Oksidasi
Preface
Palm oil is now the world's largest vegetable oil by volume. With proven nutritional
benefits in addition to the presence of nutraceutical components, such as tocotrienols
and carotenoids, palm oil is consumed in over 150 countries worldwide. It plays a
pivotal role in the socioeconomic development of Asian, Latin American, and African
regions. In 2010, global production of oils and fats stood at 172.1 million tonnes.
Palm oil combined with palm kernel oil was the largest contributor to these, account•
ing for 51.6 million tonnes, or 30% of the total output. Of the 65 million tonnes of
oils and fats entering global trade, palm oil and palm kernel oil accounted for close to
61% of the total volume, or 39.6 million tonnes, with Malaysia having 45% of the
market share, dominating the international trade in palm oil.
The success of the palm oil industry in Malaysia, Indonesia, and elsewhere has
never been easy and has only gotten harder in recent years. Its success has often been
made more difficult by mistrust and misconceptions about the oil, its composition,
and its nutritional benefits. Thus, with this critical issue in mind, this book has been
assembled with the hope of being an authoritative, comprehensive, and highly infor•
mative compilation of recent advances and issues in various important areas of palm
oil industry-s-from the production, processing, and characterization to the utilization
of palm oil and its components.
The topics herein deal with both the production and processing of palm oil and
kernels, and more importantly, the editors attempted to provide an international per•
spective to this area by drawing experts from around the world, especially Malaysia,
Brazil, and Nigeria. Thus, this book has amassed diverse topics from these experts
in specific areas from across the globe. This book begins with a chapter on the his•
tory of oil palm and subsequently three chapters related to oil palm breeding, oil
palm genomics, tissue culture and genetic engineering of oil palm. The book also
includes several topics related to postharvest activities, pests, and diseases of oil palm.
Information on production of palm oil and palm kernel oil; physical, chemical, and
polymorphic properties of palm oil and its components; as well as the measurement
and maintenance of palm oil quality are included in the book, which may be of inter•
est to researchers, scholars, technologists, and food manufacturers. To understand the
importance of this plant-based oil, the variety of applications of palm and kernel oil,
and their fractions in food, nutritional and oleochemical products are included. The
potential use of palm oil as an alternative to trans fats in foods is also highlighted.
There are also special chapters dedicated to the use of palm biomass in various wood•
based products and as sources of bioenergy and biofuels. We have also included in•
depth accounts of three current issues on oil palm/palm oil that are garnering atten•
tion and becoming globally relevant, namely waste and environmental management,
trade and traceability, together with other issues relating to sustainable development
vii
A.M. Marina et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 20 (2009) 481e487 483
combination of these treatments (Seow & Gwee, 1997). iodine, peroxide, saponification and free fatty acid values
These techniques were possible due to the fact the coconut obtained for commercial VCO samples were well within
milk proteins were easily coagulated and precipitated at the specification limit of Codex standard (2003) for refined
pH 4 (Tangsuphoom & Coupland, 2008). coconut oil. The fatty acid composition was dominated by
lauric acid with percentage ranging from 46 to 48%, which
Enzymatic extraction technique was within the limit of VCO standard according to Malay-
Extraction of oil can also be carried out by the use of en- sian Standard (2007) and Asian and Pacific Coconut Com-
zymes in aqueous extraction process. This is due to the fact munity (APCC, 2003) (Table 1). According to the study,
that plant cell walls consists of complex carbohydrate mol- medium chain fatty acids ranged from 60 to 63%. The ma-
ecules such as cellulose, hemicellulose, mannans, galacto- jor triacylglycerol (TAG) in VCO samples consisted of 22e
manans, arabinogalactans, pectin substances and protein 25% of LaLaLa, 14e16% of CCLa, 19e21% of CLaLa,
(Christensen, 1991). Coconut meat contains about 10% of 13e15% of LaLaM and 7e9% of LaMM with La, C and
carbohydrate, in which 50% of this is cellulose and 75% M are lauric, capric and mysristic acids, respectively. Gen-
of the cellulose is made up with a-cellulose (Rosenthal erally, VCO from Malaysia had relatively higher contents
et al., 1996). of CpCpLa (Cp: caproic), CpCLa and LaOO while Indone-
Oil can be found inside plant cells, linked with proteins sian VCO had more of LaMP.
and wide range of carbohydrate such as starch, cellulose, Dia, Garcia, Mabesa, and Tecson-Mendoza (2005) com-
hemicellulose, and pectins. Cell-wall degrading enzymes pared the physicochemical properties of VCO produced by
can be used to extract oil by solubilizing the structural different methods. Three different processing methods were
cell wall components of the oil seed. Che Man, Suhar- applied, namely incubated dessicated coconut meat, incu-
diyono, Asbi, Azudin, and Wei (1996) also successfully bated coconut milk and freeze-thaw coconut milk. The re-
extracted coconut oil with 1% enzyme mixture of cellulase, sults showed that there were some differences in the
a-amylase, polygalacturonase, and protease with an oil physicochemical properties of the VCO samples produced
yield of 74%. The polygalacturonase hydrolyses a-linkages by different methods but the differences were not large
of polygalacturonic acid of the polymer randomly from the enough to significantly affect the overall quality of the
ends. An a-amylase randomly hydrolyzed a-linkages to liq- VCO. The levels of the physical and chemical qualities
uefy starch and produced maltose, whereas bacterial prote- were within the Codex standard for coconut oil and the
ases were used to hydrolyze the plant protein. The study Philippine standards for VCO. In addition, the authors
showed that different enzymes were required to degrade also determined the a-Tocopherol in the studied VCO.
components of the structural cell wall including mannan, The result revealed that a-Tocopherol was actually found
galactomannan, arabinoxylogactan and cellulose. in the coconut testa (the thin brown layer that clings to
the white coconut meat) and only trace amount in the
Physicochemical properties of virgin coconut oil VCO samples. Since coconut testa was removed in the pro-
Since its appearance in the market, VCO is well ac- duction of VCO, it was logical that the VCO samples con-
cepted by consumer as functional food oil and the demand tain only trace amount in a-Tocopherol.
for this oil continues to increase. Due to that, the number of The quality of VCO is very much determined by its
commercial VCO was increasing in the market. Marina, physicochemical properties. However, as established by
Che Man, Nazimah, and Amin (2009a) described the chem- Dia et al. (2005) and Marina et al. (2009a), the physico-
ical properties of commercial VCO available in Malaysia chemical quality of VCO was comparable to RBD coconut
and Indonesia. The results revealed that chemical properties oil. An understanding of descriptive quality of VCO in
of VCO did not vary much from the RBD coconut oil. The terms of sensory evaluation was highly needed to better
Table 1. Fatty acid composition of virgin coconut oil (VCO) and refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) coconut oil from various sources.
a
Fatty acid Codex standard APCC standard Malaysian standard Marina et al. (2009a) Dia et al. (2005)
for RBD coconut oil for VCO for VCO
C6 nde0.70 0.40e0.60 0.80e0.95 0.52e0.69 nde0.60
C8 4.60e10.0 5.00e10.00 8.00e9.00 7.19e8.81 5.98e10.44
C10 5.0e8.0 4.50e8.00 5.00e7.00 5.65e6.59 5.37e6.60
C12 45.10e53.20 43.00e53.00 47.00e50.00 46.89e48.03 47.63e52.55
C14 16.80e21.00 16.00e21.00 17.00e18.50 16.23e18.90 16.79e20.08
C16 7.50e10.20 7.50e10.00 7.50e9.50 7.41e9.55 6.38e10.17
C18:0 2.00e4.00 2.00e4.00 2.50e3.50 2.81e3.57 7.45e10.73
C18:1 5.00e10.00 5.00e10.00 4.50e6.00 5.72e6.72
C18:2 1.00e2.50 1.00e2.50 0.70e1.50 0.90e1.60 nde0.12
C18:3 nde0.20 <0.5 nd nd nd
a
Asian and Pacific Coconut Community.
been able to measure rates of FFA release that are
•7.40 30-60 times greater than were obtained in tis•
•6.80 sue slices, and to do so in a shorter time period.
•6.80 ... 7.40
The mechanism by which acidosis depresses lipoly•
sis has been discussed ( l l) and is thought to be
related to cyclic AMP and adenosine levels, although
as yet no causal relationship has been established.
0 Any theory will have to take into consideration the
cE
observation reported here that FFA release is immedi•
20
ately affected by pH, presumably before changes in
these cellular metabolites can occur. Certainly, large
pH changes in the circulation do not occur in vivo,
under physiological conditions, although it remains
30
possible that significant H+ is released into the micro•
circulation of the fat organ to affect lipolysis.DIII
Fig. 4. Effect of pH on H+ release in adipocytes. Cells (39.2
mg lipid) from 130-g rats were added to Krebs-Ringer phos•
This research was supported by grants from the Cleveland
phate medium, pH 7.40 or 6.80. After 10 min, I µg of epi• Diabetes Foundation, N .E. Ohio Heart Association, and
nephrine was added. At the arrow, the pH of the medium was N.I.H. HL 18887.
:::c raised from 6.754 to 7.387 by addition of NaOH. Solid lines are Manuscript received 27 January 1977 and accepted 21 April 1977.
u cells incubated with epinephrine; dotted lines are controls.
•
pHS,2.
Table 2
Influence of pH and NaCl concentration on protein solubilityA of coconut cream protein 1 (CCP1), coconut cream protein 2 (CCP2) and whey
protein isolate (WPI)
pH WPI CCP1 CCP2
0 mM 100 mM 200 mM 0 mM 100 mM 200 mM 0 mM 100 mM 200 mM
3 84 ± 4a 87 ± 2ab 87 ± 3a 16 ± 3bc 17 ± 3ab 12.9 ± 0.3cd 58 ± 5a 42 ± 3a 36 ± 1a
4 81 ± 3a 84 ± 4bc 86 ± 4a 7 ± 2c 11.3 ± 0.2b 8 ± 1e 8 ± 3c 10 ± 3c 6 ± 2c
5 80 ± 3a 81 ± 5c 84 ± 5a 8 ± 2c 16 ± 3ab 11.0 ± 0.4d 9 ± 2c 10 ± 2c 6 ± 2c
6 82 ± 4a 87 ± 3ab 88 ± 3a 14 ± 4bc 17 ± 1ab 15 ± 1bc 13 ± 2c 18 ± 4b 17.1 ± 0.1b
7 84 ± 3a 89 ± 2ab 87 ± 4a 20 ± 6ab 19 ± 2ab 17 ± 3b 45 ± 1b 37.9 ± 0.7a 32 ± 2a
8 85 ± 3a 89 ± 2a 87 ± 4a 28 ± 6a 20 ± 3a 20 ± 1a 59 ± 5a 39 ± 1a 36 ± 4a
In a column, mean values followed by the same superscript are not significantly different at P < 0.05.
A
The protein solution was determined using the Lowry method using whey protein isolate as a standard.
3
Filtrat limbah
selokan
Analisis Awal
(COD, pH)
Fermentor
Anaerob
Analisis hasil
( COD)
Hitung volume
biogas
Use of enzymes in solvent-based and oil extraction yield by pretreating kernels of shea tree with
pressing extraction a mixture of protease and carbohydrases.
In relation to the pressing process, Cheah et at:P· ex•
The possibility of partially releasing the oil from a full fat, tracted 97.7% of the oil from the pectinase-treated mesocarp
heat-treated soya meal by using a hydrolytic enzyme was of palm by using a hydraulic press compared to 91. I%
initially investigated by Sherba et al. 35 as reported by Adler• obtained from the untreated material. In the same way, Bou•
Nissen. 36 The oil was more easily recovered by extraction vier and Entressangles44 used a cellulase preparation to re•
duce by 3% and 18%, respectively, the palm oil losses from
with petroleum ether. This approach was also followed by
press fibers and crude juice during clarification compared
Fullbrook, 10 who investigated aqueous hydrolysis of oil• with the traditional process without use of enzymes.
seeds followed by solvent extraction and also tried hydro• Smith et al.45 enhanced the yield of expelled oil from
lysis in the presence of a solvent to simultaneously extract soybean by up to 2.78% of moisture-free oil with a previous
the released oil. It was observed that yields could be con• Aspergillusfumigatus mixed-activity crude enzymatic treat•
siderably improved if hydrolysis of the finely ground flour ment which corresponded to an increase of about 11. 7% in
of soybean and rapeseed was carried out in the presence of oil recovery; this was equivalent to 63.5% of the total ex•
solvent. In the case of rapeseed, 50% more oil was thus tractable oil.
obtained. For soybeans, the increase in yield was even
higher, thereby resulting in a net extraction of about 90% of
the original extractable oil; an enzymatic mixture obtained Aqueous process
from Aspergillus niger at a concentration of 3% was used. 10 Process description and unit operations
Olsen31 also described aqueous hydrolysis of dehulled rape•
seed followed by extraction of the residual oil with petro• The aqueous extraction process (AEP; i.e., extraction using
leum ether. The hydrolysis mixture included three cell wall• water alone as medium) was originally suggested as an al•
degrading enzymes: pectinase, cellulase, and hemicellulase. ternative to the solvent oil extraction process in the 1950s.
This partial hydrolysis increased the permeability of the cell It was thought to be safer and cheaper. Moreover, the si•
wall, thus allowing more efficient percolation of the solvent multaneous recovery of oil and protein (concentrates or iso•
and a more efficient extraction of the oil. It was also found lates) from oil-bearing materials was possible.46
that an enzyme mixture containing all three active groups AEP uses a very distinctive principle compared to the
together gave the most extensive hydrolysis. Sosulski et usual solvent extraction processes which are based on the
al. 11 evaluated the effect of different carbohydrases on the capacity of the oil to dissolve and be extracted by the sol•
extraction time and yield of canola oil. The enzyme reaction vent. In AEP, the oil does not have a high chemical affinity
was carried out on previously autoclaved and moisture• for the extraction medium and, therefore, there is no chemi•
adjusted canola flakes, and followed by drying and hexane cal potential for oil dissolution. Although solvent extraction
extraction. The enzyme efficiency based on oil yield en• theory cannot explain AEP, it certainly helps to understand
hancement was: mixed activity enzyme > (3-glucanase > the mechanisms involved in the process. It is well known
pectinase > hemicellulase > cellulase. Enzymatic treatment that the spontaneous dissolution of any solute in a solvent is
before Soxhlet extraction for a given time gave 45% higher always accompanied by a negative charge in free energy
yields. Furthermore, the time to extract the total extractable (AG)47 which is related by the Gibbs equation to enthalpy
oil comparatively decreased indicating increased rates of (!J.H), absolute temperature tT), and entropy (AS) as fol•
extraction. The maximum extraction yield obtained for the lows:
control in a Goldfish apparatus was approximately 5% AG= AH-TAS (l)
lower compared to the ones obtained with enzyme action. 1 1
Similarly, Dominguez et al. 37 reported an increase in soy• During dissolution, thermal energy is consumed to separate
bean extractibility by 8-10% of the extractable oil and up to solute molecules and dissociate the solvent molecules, and
4% in the case of sunflower oil38 after enzymatic treatment it is released when the dispersed solute molecules interact
with different commercial enzymes. The resulting higher with neighboring solvent molecules. The overall enthalpy
extraction rates enabled shorter o_Reration to obtain a given change will be more negative (exothermic) if the energy
percentage of the extractable oil. 9 released during solute-solute and solvent-solvent interac•
Bhatnagar and Johari'" also verified that treatment with tions is greater than the energy absorbed in solute-solvent
enzymes originating from thermophilus molds increased the interactions; however, if the solute molecules are strongly
amount of Soxhlet extractable oil in the case of some oil• bound to each other as in water, the solute dissolves well
seeds. The recovery of cotton oil increased by up to 5% with only if dissolution results in stronger solute-solvent interac•
previous enzymatic action while sunflower oil recovery in• tions. This is not the case for triglyceride-water interactions
creased by 4.2% after using another enzyme originating which are weak and cannot offset the large amount of en•
from mold. In the same study, the oil yield was greater when ergy required to break hydrogen bonds in water. On the
the enzymatic treatment was carried out in the presence of other hand, solubility of oil in hexane is high because the
a solvent instead of an aqueous medium; this was attributed stronger solute-solvent interactions compensate the energy
to the greater solubilization in organic solvents of plant losses.47
tissues and proteins to which oil may remain bound even Extraction of oil by AEP is, consequently, based more on
after the normal extraction procedures. Tana-Debrah and the insolubility of oil in water than on the dissolution of
Ohta41.42 obtained an increase of around 20% in the solvent oil.47 In this case, the water soluble components of oil crops
BAB 2
LANDASAN TEORI
2.1.Kelapa
ekonomi tinggi. Seluruh bagian tanaman mulai dari akar, batang, daun dan
adalah tumbuhan palma pantai yang pohonnya tinggi, tanaman yang berusia
cukup tua, yang banyak tersebar di seluruh daerah tropika, dan pada
kehidupan sehari-hari…”
sehari – hari, karena seluruh bagian pohon kelapa dapat dimanfaatkan untuk
keperluan manusia.
ABSTRAK
Metode: Eksperimental, The Post Test Only Control group Design. Sampel di
bagi menjdi 4 kelompok. 1 kelompok kontrol dan 3 kelompok perlakuan diberi
minyak goreng deep frying 0,25 ml/gr BB/hari dengan frekuensi 4x, 8x dan 16x.
Diberikan kepada tikus selama 28 hari. Dianalisis dengan Kruskal Wallis dan
Mann-Whitney.
Hasil Penelitian dan diskusi: pemberian minyak goreng deep frying 0,25
ml/100gr BB/hari dengan frekuensi penggorengan 4x, 8x dan 16x menunjukkan
hasil yang signifikan dapat menyebabkan terjadinya hipertrofi tubulus ginjal.
Jumlah tubulus yang hipertrofi meningkat seiring dengan peningkatan frekuensi
penggorengan akibat peningkatan radikal bebas dan terjadinya inflamasi sistemik.
ix
A.M. Marina et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 20 (2009) 481e487 483
combination of these treatments (Seow & Gwee, 1997). iodine, peroxide, saponification and free fatty acid values
These techniques were possible due to the fact the coconut obtained for commercial VCO samples were well within
milk proteins were easily coagulated and precipitated at the specification limit of Codex standard (2003) for refined
pH 4 (Tangsuphoom & Coupland, 2008). coconut oil. The fatty acid composition was dominated by
lauric acid with percentage ranging from 46 to 48%, which
Enzymatic extraction technique was within the limit of VCO standard according to Malay-
Extraction of oil can also be carried out by the use of en- sian Standard (2007) and Asian and Pacific Coconut Com-
zymes in aqueous extraction process. This is due to the fact munity (APCC, 2003) (Table 1). According to the study,
that plant cell walls consists of complex carbohydrate mol- medium chain fatty acids ranged from 60 to 63%. The ma-
ecules such as cellulose, hemicellulose, mannans, galacto- jor triacylglycerol (TAG) in VCO samples consisted of 22e
manans, arabinogalactans, pectin substances and protein 25% of LaLaLa, 14e16% of CCLa, 19e21% of CLaLa,
(Christensen, 1991). Coconut meat contains about 10% of 13e15% of LaLaM and 7e9% of LaMM with La, C and
carbohydrate, in which 50% of this is cellulose and 75% M are lauric, capric and mysristic acids, respectively. Gen-
of the cellulose is made up with a-cellulose (Rosenthal erally, VCO from Malaysia had relatively higher contents
et al., 1996). of CpCpLa (Cp: caproic), CpCLa and LaOO while Indone-
Oil can be found inside plant cells, linked with proteins sian VCO had more of LaMP.
and wide range of carbohydrate such as starch, cellulose, Dia, Garcia, Mabesa, and Tecson-Mendoza (2005) com-
hemicellulose, and pectins. Cell-wall degrading enzymes pared the physicochemical properties of VCO produced by
can be used to extract oil by solubilizing the structural different methods. Three different processing methods were
cell wall components of the oil seed. Che Man, Suhar- applied, namely incubated dessicated coconut meat, incu-
diyono, Asbi, Azudin, and Wei (1996) also successfully bated coconut milk and freeze-thaw coconut milk. The re-
extracted coconut oil with 1% enzyme mixture of cellulase, sults showed that there were some differences in the
a-amylase, polygalacturonase, and protease with an oil physicochemical properties of the VCO samples produced
yield of 74%. The polygalacturonase hydrolyses a-linkages by different methods but the differences were not large
of polygalacturonic acid of the polymer randomly from the enough to significantly affect the overall quality of the
ends. An a-amylase randomly hydrolyzed a-linkages to liq- VCO. The levels of the physical and chemical qualities
uefy starch and produced maltose, whereas bacterial prote- were within the Codex standard for coconut oil and the
ases were used to hydrolyze the plant protein. The study Philippine standards for VCO. In addition, the authors
showed that different enzymes were required to degrade also determined the a-Tocopherol in the studied VCO.
components of the structural cell wall including mannan, The result revealed that a-Tocopherol was actually found
galactomannan, arabinoxylogactan and cellulose. in the coconut testa (the thin brown layer that clings to
the white coconut meat) and only trace amount in the
Physicochemical properties of virgin coconut oil VCO samples. Since coconut testa was removed in the pro-
Since its appearance in the market, VCO is well ac- duction of VCO, it was logical that the VCO samples con-
cepted by consumer as functional food oil and the demand tain only trace amount in a-Tocopherol.
for this oil continues to increase. Due to that, the number of The quality of VCO is very much determined by its
commercial VCO was increasing in the market. Marina, physicochemical properties. However, as established by
Che Man, Nazimah, and Amin (2009a) described the chem- Dia et al. (2005) and Marina et al. (2009a), the physico-
ical properties of commercial VCO available in Malaysia chemical quality of VCO was comparable to RBD coconut
and Indonesia. The results revealed that chemical properties oil. An understanding of descriptive quality of VCO in
of VCO did not vary much from the RBD coconut oil. The terms of sensory evaluation was highly needed to better
Table 1. Fatty acid composition of virgin coconut oil (VCO) and refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) coconut oil from various sources.
a
Fatty acid Codex standard APCC standard Malaysian standard Marina et al. (2009a) Dia et al. (2005)
for RBD coconut oil for VCO for VCO
C6 nde0.70 0.40e0.60 0.80e0.95 0.52e0.69 nde0.60
C8 4.60e10.0 5.00e10.00 8.00e9.00 7.19e8.81 5.98e10.44
C10 5.0e8.0 4.50e8.00 5.00e7.00 5.65e6.59 5.37e6.60
C12 45.10e53.20 43.00e53.00 47.00e50.00 46.89e48.03 47.63e52.55
C14 16.80e21.00 16.00e21.00 17.00e18.50 16.23e18.90 16.79e20.08
C16 7.50e10.20 7.50e10.00 7.50e9.50 7.41e9.55 6.38e10.17
C18:0 2.00e4.00 2.00e4.00 2.50e3.50 2.81e3.57 7.45e10.73
C18:1 5.00e10.00 5.00e10.00 4.50e6.00 5.72e6.72
C18:2 1.00e2.50 1.00e2.50 0.70e1.50 0.90e1.60 nde0.12
C18:3 nde0.20 <0.5 nd nd nd
a
Asian and Pacific Coconut Community.
482 A.M. Marina et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 20 (2009) 481e487
Wet extraction comminuted and pressed to obtain approximately equal
Wet processing or aqueous processing is the term used amounts of emulsion and residue. The residue was pressed
for the extraction of coconut oil directly from coconut again to obtain more emulsion and residue. The emulsion
milk. This method eliminates the use of solvent which re- was centrifuged to obtain cream, skim milk and some solids
portedly may lower the investment cost and energy require- or protein. The cream was subjected to enzymatic action un-
ments. Furthermore, it eliminates the RBD process der closely controlled temperature and pH conditions. After
(Villarino et al., 2007). Even though the concept appears freeze-thaw operation, the cream was centrifuged again to
potentially attractive, however, the method yields compara- obtain the oil. The protein in the skim milk was coagulated
tively low content of oil, which has discouraged its com- by heating, subsequently filtered and dried to produce pro-
mercial application (Rosenthal, Pyle, & Niranjan, 1996). tein concentrate.
The wet processing can only be carried out by means of The oil recovery reported in the Krauss-Maffei was 89%,
coconut milk by breaking the emulsion. This is rather difficult which was less than the conventional expeller process (95%).
due to the high stability emulsion of the coconut milk. Desta- In this technique, husked coconuts were autoclaved, shelled,
bilization can be done through three mechanisms. The first and the coconut meat (the white solid endosperm inside the
stage is creaming by the action of gravitational force resulting coconut fruit) first sent through cutter and subsequently
in two phases, with the higher specific gravity takes place at through a roller mill. Then it was pressed in a hydraulic press
the top phase and the lower specific gravity phase moves and the emulsion was centrifuged to obtain the cream and
downward. The second stage is flocculation or clustering in skim milk. The cream was heated to 92 C and then filtered
which the oil phase moves as a group which does not involve to obtain high quality oil. The skim milk is heated to 98 C in
the rupture of the interfacial film that normally surrounds a flow heater to coagulate protein, which was separated by
each globule and therefore does not change the original glob- centrifuging and then drying. The residue from the hydraulic
ule. The last stage, coalescence is the most critical phase in press was dried and ground to obtain edible coconut flour.
destabilization. During this stage, the interfacial area is rup- The study shows that quite high recovery of oil was obtained
tured; the globules joined together and reduced the interfacial but the temperature employed was slightly high which might
area (Onsaard, Vittayanont, Srigam, & McClements, 2005). destroy some of its minor components such as phenolic
The wet process appears more desirable due to the free compounds.
usage of chemical solvents, thus more environmental
friendly than the solvent extraction. The method is also Fermentation technique
much simpler, which can be carried out at home by anyone Che Man, Abdul Karim, and Teng, (1997) investigated
who are interested in producing their own natural oil. the use of pure culture, Lactobacillus plantarum 1041 IAM
to extract coconut oil, which was able to extract as much
Chilling, freezing and thawing techniques as 95% of the oil. In the study, grated coconut meat and water
Attempts have been made before to break the protein at 30, 50 and 70 C were mixed in ratio of 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3
stabilized oil-in-water emulsion including heating and cen- and allowed to settle for 2 to 6 h. The most efficient coconut
trifugation, freezing and thawing, chilling and thawing the cream separation was obtained at the 1:1 ratio of grated co-
coconut cream obtained after centrifugation (Seow & conut meat to water at 70 C followed by 6 h settling time. L.
Gwee, 1997). Emulsion was centrifuged before chilling plantarum has the ability to ferment sugar with the produc-
and thawing to allow better packing of the coconut oil glob- tion of considerable amount of lactic acid. Coconut milk
ules. According to the studies, the temperature used were with L. plantarum strain IAM 1041 inoculation indicated
10 C and 4 C for chilling and freezing process, respec- a rapid breaking of the emulsion and the liberation of the
tively while the thawing process was carried out in a water oil compared to Lactobacillus delbrueckii. This was because
bath at 40 C until the coconut cream reached room temper- L. plantarum strain could multiply faster in coconut milk at
ature (25 C). In addition, this action also helps in remov- 40e50 C under microaerophilic conditions which in-
ing undissolved solids after extraction. The removal of creased the fermentation process.
solids present in high percentages in the dispersion of oil Coconut milk emulsion can also be separated by adjusting
seed was important for efficient recovery of oil by centrifu- pH of the coconut milk emulsion between pH 3 and 5.6 and
gation (Rosenthal et al., 1996). The centrifugation step was inoculated with bacteria cultures (Chen & Diosady, 2003).
followed to enable the packing of cream oil globule to crys- Che Man, Suhardiyono, Ali, and Azudin (1992) used acetic
tallize on lowering the temperature. Centrifugation process acid treatments to destabilize coconut cream in coconut oil
was carried out from 2000 to 5000 G up to 6 min. During extraction. Treatment of 25% of acetic acid at level of 0.1,
thawing, the oil coalesced due to loss of spherical shape 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4% on coconut cream from 10 to 14 h of reac-
and formed large droplets of varying sizes. tion time at room temperature had improved the quality of
Robledano-Luzuriage and Krauss-Maffei were two pro- the oil extracted, with oil recovery up to 60%. Other treat-
cesses known to apply freeze and thaw operation in the ments to break the coconut milk emulsion included the use
extraction of coconut oil (Marina, 2008). In the Roble- of heat, refrigeration, action of enzymes, acidification, the
dano-Luzuriage process, fresh coconut kernel was use of salt or brine, electrolyte action, short waves and
ELSEVIER
Industrial processes for the extraction of edible oilfrom oilseeds generally involve a solvent extraction step which
may or may not be preceded by pressing. Hexane is the preferred solvent; hexane-based processes have been in
commercial operation for a long time. For such processes, it is possible to achieve oil yields in excess of 95%
with a solvent recovery of over 95%. In the past, the main concern of this process has been the safety implications
surrounding the use of hexane. This prompted attempts to develop processes based on the use of aqueous
extraction media which were unsuccessful mainly due to low oil yields.
The scenario at present appears to be changing. Interest in aqueous extraction processes has been revived by
increasing environmental concern. An aqueous process is looked upon as an environmentally cleaner alternative
technology for oil extraction. Organic solvents such as hexane, in particular, can contribute to the industrial
emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOes). The production of voes in the conventional process is
particularly worrisome since these can react in the atmosphere with other pollutants to produce ozone and other
photochemical oxidants which can be hazardous to human health and can cause damage to crops. Besides this,
the voes are themselves ''greenhouse gases"; some are carcinogenic and have toxic properties. Other advan•
tages of the aqueous process compared with solvent-based processes include: (I) simultaneous production of
edible oil and protein isolate or concentration in the same process, (2) lower protein damage during extraction,
and (3) improved process safety due to the lower risk of fire and explosion. It is also reported that aqueous
extraction processes may be more cost effective since the solvent recovery step is eliminated. The main limitations
of this process appear to be: (I) lower efficiency of oil extraction as evident in earlier studies, ( 2) demulsification
requirements to recover oil when emulsions are formed, and (3) treatment of the resulting aqueous effluent.
With the objective of improving the yield of aqueous processes, enzymes have been used to facilitate oil
release. Selected enzymes have been tried on different types of oilseeds, resulting in extraction yields much higher
than the original aqueous process (in some cases of over 90%). These enzymes mainly hydrolyze the structural
polysaccharides whichform the cell wall of oilseeds or the proteins which form the cell and lipid body membrane.
This article aims to review aqueous and enzyme-based processes and discuss related issues.
Keywords: Aqueous oil extraction; enzymatic treatment of oilseeds; oil recovery; protein recovery
silage. With ver y good management, mycoto xi n Finally some enterobacteria may produce endotoxins in
concentrations in silage are generally similar to those present silage. Little is really known about production in the silo.
on the crop at ensiling. The development of mycotoxins in Anecdotally, high acetic acid silages with no butyric acid
the silo is an indication of excessive oxygen exposure. have been associated with poor intake. We do know that
Acetic acid bacteria high acetic acid silage produced by Lactobacillus buchneri
treatment has not reduced intake by cattle (Kleinschmit &
Acetic acid bacteria are aerobic bacteria that are capable
Kung, 2006). This suggests that enterobacteria are the
of growing at low pH. They grow on ethanol, producing
cause of the poor intake due to some other compound that
acetic acid. However, once ethanol has been exhausted,
they produce, not specifically the acetic acid.
they can grow on acetic acid, producing carbon dioxide and
water. This will raise pH and permit other aerobic Clostridia
microorganisms to grow. Consequently, acetic acid bacteria Clostridia are obligate anaerobes, and their effects on
can be initiators of aerobic deterioration. At present, acetic silage quality usually occur long after the lactic acid bacteria
acid bacteria have only been reported in corn silage, silage have stopped actively growing in the silo. The most
that usually has a low buffering capacity so that lactic and important silage species are divided into three groups by
acetic acid concentrations are low and a high sugar content the principal compounds they ferment: proteolytic clostridia
that could permit high ethanol concentrations. They have that ferment amino acids primarily, the Clostridium
not been found in C3 grass silages or legume silages. Sugar butyricum group that ferment carbohydrates, and
cane silages and perhaps other similar C4 grass silages may C. tyrobutyricum that ferments some sugars but more
be candidate silages to look for acetic acid bacteria, i.e., importantly ferments lactic acid. The proteolytic clostridia
crops with characteristics similar to corn. produce various compounds in catabolizing amino acids;
Bacilli the most significant are ammonia, amines and carbon dioxide.
The primary products of the C. butyricum group and
There are two major groups of bacteria that can be
C. tyrobutyricum are butyric acid, acetic acid, hydrogen
active aerobically and anae robically, bacilli and
and carbon dioxide.
enterobacteria. Some bacilli can ferment sugars and organic
Clostridial activity is undesirable for several reasons.
acids in the silo. However, their activity under anaerobic
First and foremost is the reduced intake by livestock of
conditions is considered to be of relatively rare importance.
silages with evidence of substantial clostridial activity
Their more significant activity is in advancing the spoilage
(i.e., butyric acid at > 5 g/kg DM). The cause of the
of silage when exposed to oxygen. After yeasts or acetic
reduced intake is uncertain. It does not appear to be
acid bacteria have raised pH (approximately 4.5 or above),
butyric acid, a common acid in the rumen that ruminants
and temperature has increased modestly (40°C), a second
routinely taste as they chew their cud. Amines have been
wave of heating usually occurs with temperatures rising to
associated with reduced intake in small ruminants but
50°C or higher. This often is the activity of bacilli (Muck &
not necessarily in cattle. Whatever the cause, the practical
Pitt, 1994), producing a silage that has a slimy feel.
realities are that farmers have to reduce the proportion of
Enterobacteria clostridial silage in a ration as butyric acid increases
In contrast to the bacilli, the primary effects of the during storage in order to keep intakes constant.
enterobacteria, facultative anaerobes, on silage comes under Secondly, lactating dairy cows, particularly those in
anaerobic conditions. Various species of enterobacteria transition, may be more susceptible to ketosis from the
can use nitrate as an electron acceptor in place of oxygen, added butyric acid from consuming clostridial silage.
reducing nitrate to nitrite or nitrogen oxide. These bacteria Thirdly, the fermentation of lactic acid to butyric acid is
are the principal source of silo gas (a mixture of various NOx one of the most wasteful anaerobic fermentations in
gases) emanating from silos. silage, producing a 51% loss of DM and 18% loss of gross
Enterobacteria are also the principal competitors of the energy (McDonald et al., 1991).
lactic acid bacteria for the sugars in the crop. Their principal How ensiling preserves a crop
fermentation product is acetic acid, not lactic. Other
Most silages are made at a dry matter content between
fermentation products in silage that are signs of their
200 to 500 g/kg. Within this DM range, many enzymes in the
presence are succinic acid and 2,3-butanediol. As a
plant are still active at ensiling. Also the wide variety of
consequence, their fermentation is less desirable than that
bacteria, yeasts and molds described above can all grow
of lactic acid bacteria.
within this range. So it is a substantial challenge to bring
R. Bras. Zootec., v.39, p.183-191, 2010 (supl. especial)
Evaluation Of Nutritional Components Of Carica Papaya L.At Different Stages Of Ripening.
www.iosrjournals.org 15 | Page
International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences 2015; 4(1): 84-88 85
are true proteins. Out of this proportion, Ca. 80% has reducing sugar (10.5 %) is observed in pineapple pulp. The
proteolytic activity due to a protease known as Bromelin. total sugar content of Indian variety was higher in waste
Fresh pineapple contains minerals as Calcium, Chlorine, (9.75%) than in pulp (8.66%).The total sugar content of pearl
Potassium, Phosphorus and Sodium [11]. pineapple of Brazil had a total sugar content of 14.5%. TSS
varies from 10% to 14% brix depending upon the stage of
Table 1. Nutrients in 100 grams (g) pineapple [3]. maturity and season [14]. The reducing sugar content of
Nutrients Amount pineapple was lower in Indian Varieties (10-12.5) [13]. But
Energy 52 calories Ghana pineapples contain higher amount of reducing sugar
Dietary fibre 1.40g (16.5%) [15].The TSS value of Indian pineapple was higher
Carbohydrate 13.7 g
in pulp (13.3%) than waste (10.2%). TSS Value of Malaysian
protein 0.54 g
Iron 0.28 mg Josapine pineapple was 13.5% [16]. Ascorbic acid content
Magnesium 12 mg slightly decreased in ripening stage of pineapple fruits [17].
Calcium 16 mg The pineapple waste had high moisture content (91.35%) and
Potassium 150 mg moderate titratable acidity [14]. Moisture content of
Phosphorus 11 mg
pineapple range from 69 to 89.5%.But it decreased during
Zinc 0.10 mg
Vitamin A 130 I.U room temperature storage and ripening period [18].
Vitamin B 1 0.079 mg
Vitamin B 2 0.031 mg
Vitamin B 3 0.489 mg
3. Uses as Food
Vitamin B 6 0.110 mg
Pineapple fruits exhibit high moisture, high sugars, soluble
Vitamin C 24 mg
solid content ascorbic acid and low crude fibre. Thus
Pineapple juice contains ascorbic acid and is a good source pineapple can be used as supplementary nutritional fruit for
of Vitamin C. Ascorbic acid or vitamin C fights bacterial and good personal health [14].The pineapple fruits are normally
viral infections which is an effective antioxidant and helps consumed fresh or as fresh pineapple juice. Field ripe fruits
the body absorb iron. Half a cup of pineapple juice provides are best for eating fresh, and it is only necessary to remove
50 percent of an adult's daily recommended amount of the crown, rind, eyes and core. Pineapple may be consumed
vitamin C [4]. Several essential minerals exist in pineapples, fresh, canned, juiced, and are found in a wide array of food
including manganese, a trace mineral instrumental to the stuffs - dessert, fruit salad, jam, yogurt, ice cream, candy, and
formation of bone, as well as the creation and activation of as a complement to meat dishes [8]. In Panama, very small
certain enzymes. Pineapples also include copper, another pineapples are cut from the plant with a few inches of stem to
trace mineral. It assists in the absorption of iron and regulates serve as a handle. The flesh of larger fruits is cut up in
blood pressure and heart rate [8]. various ways and eaten fresh, as dessert, in salads, compotes
and otherwise, or cooked in pies, cakes, puddings, or as a
Table 2. Physical and chemical constituents of pineapple pulp and waste [14] garnish on ham, or made into sauces or preserves. Malayans
Parameters Pineapple pulp Pineapple waste utilize the pineapple in curries and various meat dishes. In
Moisture (%) 87.3 91.35 the Philippines, the fermented pulp is made into a popular
Ash content (mg/100g) 1.8 0.04 sweetmeat. The pineapple does not lend itself well to
Total soluble solids (%) 13.3 10.2 freezing, as it tends to develop off flavours. Canned
Crude fibre (g/100g-fw) 0.41 0.60 pineapple is consumed throughout the world. In Africa,
Total sugars (%) 8.66 9.75
Reducing sugars (%) 10.5 8.2
young, tender shoots are eaten in salads. The terminal bud or
Non-reducing sugars (%) 7.4 8.8 "cabbage" and the inflorescences are eaten raw or cooked.
Titratable acidity (%) 2.03 1.86 Young shoots, called "hijos de pina" are sold on vegetable
Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 21.5 26.5 markets in Guatemala [3].
The Honey Queen Variety is superior in nutritional content
as well as sweetness than the Giant Kew variety of pineapple. 4. Medicinal Value
The Giant Kew variety contained 6% Total soluble solids Pineapple can be used as supplementary nutritional fruit
(TSS), 3.88% total sugar and 1.75% non reducing sugar. On for good personal health. Pineapple fruits are an excellent
the contrary, the Honey Queen variety contains 10% TSS, source of vitamins and minerals. One healthy ripe pineapple
4.84% total sugar and 1.59% non reducing sugar. Honey fruit can supply about 16.2% of daily requirement for vitamin
Queen contains all the minerals in higher amount than the C [14]. Vitamin C is the body's primary water soluble
Giant Kew variety but Giant Kew contains higher Vitamin C antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage
than Honey Queen. The Honey Queen contains higher normal cells. A powerful antioxidant, vitamin C supports the
amount of calcium than the Giant Kew [12]. Ascorbic acid formation of collagen in bones, blood vessels, cartilage and
value of pineapple in Nigeria is 22.5 -33.5 mg/100g-fw [13]. muscle, as well as the absorption of iron. Vitamin C also
The reducing sugar was higher in pineapple pulp when retards the development of urinary tract infections during
compared with pineapple waste. The maximum amount of pregnancy and reduces the risk of certain cancers, including
174
abstract
HosseinzadeH, J., M. FeyzollaHzadeH and a. H. aFkari, 2013. The physical and chemical properties
of kiwifruit harvested at four stages. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci., 19: 174-180
Comprehensive information on properties of agricultural crops facilitates the design of modern machinery and processing
equipment with modified quality specifications. Hence, mechanics of agricultural materials due to its special importance has
quite developed despite being young. in this research some physical properties of the kiwifruit (Hayward and Bruno cultivars),
soluble solid content and pH were investigated for two fruit cultivar during four harvest stages. The objective of this study was
to investigate the effect of harvest time and cultivar on some physical properties of kiwifruit varieties, typically cultivated in
iran. Physical properties of kiwifruit were determined at a moisture content of 80% to 86% (wet basis). The considered param-
eters were geometric mean diameter, arithmetic mean diameter sphericity, true density and aspect ratio. results showed that
geometric mean diameter and sphericity were significantly affected by fruit cultivar. However, there was no significant effect
on true density. soluble solid content and pH values increased in both cultivars with increasing harvest time.
results obtained with the latter varieties indicate that the effect of moisture
is not confined to cottonseeds of any one variety or those produced in a par•
ticular locality. Only the work on the Delfos seeds, however, is reported
here in detail. These seeds were obtained from cotton harvested and ginned
in the fall of 1941 and had an original moisture content of 10.5 per cent.
when received in December of that year.
Lots of 3 pounds each of the cottonseed were conditioned to the desired
moisture content and stored in air-tight, 2-quart glass jars at 25° C. The
moisture content of the seed was changed under conditions which minimized
any other activity during the process, and did not permanently injure the
seed. An increase in moisture was obtained by spreading the seeds in a
1-
z
Lu
u 10
a:: MOISTURE CONTENT
Lu
e,
(PERCENT)
v, e-----e 7.5
0 .. .. 10 5
i3 ~ 130
ci
~ 155
>•
I• 0---0 18 0
I- c>------() 20 5
~
i.u
Lu
5
a::
II.
----4-·---
50 100 150 200
LENGTH OF STORAGE (DAYS)
thin layer in a room maintained at 3° C. and 100 per cent. relative humidity
until the desired moisture content was reached. One three-pound lot of
seed was dried at room temperature in vacuum desiccators until its moisture
content dropped to 7.5 per cent.
Analyses of the stored seeds were made at regular intervals. The results
of the determination of the free fatty acids are shown in graphical form in
figure 2.
Each curve represents seed of a particular moisture content and the
points on the curve represent the content of free fatty acids of the seed at
various times during a storage period of 200 days. Mold formation was
visible after 100 days on the seeds of high moisture content (18 and 20.5
per cent.) and th€ experiments with these lots were, therefore, discontinued
at that point.