Model dan Teori Kepemimpinan Strategis: Perspektif India

Temuan tentang Teori Kepemimpinan

Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya, Sumi Jha,

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Mengutip dokumen ini: Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya, Sumi Jha, "Temuan tentang Teori Kepemimpinan" Di Model dan Teori
Kepemimpinan Strategis: Perspektif India. Dipublikasikan secara online: 14 Jun 2018; 97-126.

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https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78756-259-220181006

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 Bab 5

Temuan tentang Teori Kepemimpinan

Penulis telah memetakan tanggapan praktisi kepemimpinan pada 21 teori kepemimpinan yang berbeda dan
kategori tematiknya. Diketahui bahwa definisi teori kepemimpinan telah berkembang seiring dengan perubahan
zaman. Data dianalisis isi. Relevansi teoritis telah diidentifikasi dari data responden. Temuan dari analisis isi
telah disajikan pada Tabel 1, dan berada dalam urutan kronologis perkembangan. Beberapa tanggapan sejalan
dengan teori yang ada tetapi beberapa tanggapan dari para pemimpin India telah menyimpang dari 21 teori
kepemimpinan yang mapan. Tabel 1 menyajikan aspek divergen dan konvergen dari temuan dengan 21 teori
kepemimpinan.
Diunduh oleh University of Exeter At 21:40 05 Agustus 2018 (PT)

5.1. Temuan: Divergensi dan Konvergensi Teori Kepemimpinan Mapan dengan Responses of

Indian Leaders

Teori sifat kepemimpinan memiliki tiga teori utama yaitu, teori sifat (disposisional), keterampilan / kompetensi kepemimpinan dan

teori profil motif pemimpin. Beberapa ciri seperti menjadi pendengar yang baik, retrospektif, intuitif, dan mobilitas pemimpin India

disebutkan di Tabel 1 . Temuan mengungkapkan bahwa seorang pemimpin harus menyeimbangkan tujuan jangka pendek dan

jangka panjang untuk memenuhi tujuan organisasi. Temuan menekankan pada dua poin yang berbeda: kemunculan sifat penting,

mobilitas dan fokus pada pemangku kepentingan yang menonjol.

Model dan Teori Kepemimpinan Strategis: Perspektif India, 97–126 Hak Cipta © 2018 oleh Emerald Publishing Limited

Semua hak reproduksi dalam bentuk apapun dilindungi undang-undang doi: 10.1108 / 978-1-78756-259-220181006
 Diunduh oleh University of Exeter At 21:40 05 Agustus 2018 (PT)

Tabel 1: Teori Disposisional (Sifat).

Tematik Kepemimpinan Jangkar Keterangan Tematik (Divergensi dan Konvergensi

Kategori Teori Penulis Dari Teori Mapan)

Dispositional Trait Bass (1990), Stogdill Indian business leaders are expected to be good listeners, retrospective and intuitive in

(trait) (dispositional) (1948) dan Zaccaro, decision-making. In ancient Indian scriptures and literature it has been remarked that human beings are

theories theories – traits Kemp, dan Bader given one mouth and two ears, thus one should listen more than speak. This ancient adage is still very

and attributes (2004) relevant for Indian business leaders

Leadership skills/ Katz (1955), Katz In India,

competence and Kahn (1978), • Mobility is an important determinant for being a strategic leader
Zaccaro, Mumford,
Connelly, Marx, • Leader should be adaptable to technological advancements

and Gilbert (2000), Classical literature talks about traits such as knowledge, others. They
Yammarino (2000) extrovert, consciousness, emotional intelligence and such

andMumford, don’t refer to ‘being mobile’ as a trait

Campion, and
Morgeson (2007)

Leader motive McClelland (1975) • Indian leaders should balance the need for meeting short-term achievements and the
need to be focussed towards long-term achievement
profile theory and Hackman and
Oldham (1975)

• Leaders should not try to cater to all stakeholders but should focus on salient stakeholders with
quality inputs

• Leaders should have the desire to update and broaden their knowledge base
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Table 2: Behavioural Theories.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory Authors From Established Theories)

Behavioural Behavioural Blake and Mouton • Indian leaders have to understand that followers, while performing tasks, appreciate certain amount of

theories approaches (1985), Stogdill persuading. The behavioural theories work on two dimensions, namely, task orientation and relationship
orientation. Presently, employee base of an organization consists of more knowledge workers. This demands
(OSU/LBDQ) (1963), Likert (1967)
participative environment; therefore, leaders have to develop relationship orientation. The demand for
and Cartwright and
relationship orientation stems from the advent of nuclear families and two-child family in India. From late
Zander (1960) 1970s, in Indian families parents provide more attentions to their kids because of increased means and
awareness regarding child development. In the 2000s, these kids grew and got employed in the corporate
sector. They expect similar levels of consideration from their managers

• Indian leaders are expected to practise delegation of tasks

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Table 2: ( Continued )

Thematic Leadership Anchor Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory Authors From Established Theories)

Participative Huang, Iun, Liu, and • Indian leaders should initiate and create a second line of Gong (2010), Chen
command through succession planning
and Tjosvold and • To empower subordinates, Indian leaders have to create an

(2006) Somech (2005) environment of psychological safety. The notion of safety was earlier
from job security provided by employers
Wang, Waldman,
Leaders now have to create an environment where
and Zhang (2014),
subordinates can freely share their viewpoints which
Bhattacharyya and
may challenge leaders’ views; thus, developing a sense of psychological safety
Jha (2013), Pearce

and Sims (2000),

• For practice of shared leadership, Indian leaders must truly listen to the
Manz and Sims board of directors, in other words strategic

(1980)
shared leadership should be embedded in corporate governance practices

Shared Zhang, Tremaine, • Indian leaders should psychologically as well as structurally empower team leaders to manage
innovations, new business ventures, international expansions, early stage mergers and acquisition and
leadership Milewski, strategic alliance

Fjermespad, and
O’Sullivan (2012) and
Jha and Nair (2006) • Indian leaders should create IT-enabled platforms to seek inputs on leadership
functioning. Indian government has initiated digital programmes which are adding
impetus in this direction
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Delegation and Spreitzer (1995) • Indian business leaders must ensure adequate employee participation towards experimental
business which would have future strategic imperatives (future growth potential). Initially
empowerment and Thomas and these might make marginal contribution
Velthouse (1990)

• Indian leaders must accept strategic shared leadership wherein one leader can look into technology and
another can look into business dimension. The leaders however should have sufficient understanding
regarding business and technology

• Indian leaders have to create a shared vision of leadership in the organization

Leadership Tremblay, • Indian leaders should reward and recognize the behaviour of employees which promotes innovative ideas

reward and Vandenberghe, and

punishment Doucet (2013), • Indian

privateleaders should reward
with constructive and recognize in public and should reprimand in
feedback
behaviour Podaskoff, Todor,

Grover, and Huber • Self-discipline of Indian leaders would help in reinforcing good practices
(1984) and Keller and Szilagyi

(1976) • Indian leaders should not punish employees for mistakes during innovation or
with organizational improvement intentions
 102 Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya dan Sumi Jha

Teori perilaku kepemimpinan terdiri dari teori-teori seperti pendekatan perilaku, partisipatif, kepemimpinan bersama,

pendelegasian dan pemberdayaan, penghargaan kepemimpinan dan perilaku hukuman (Tabel 2). Temuan tersebut

mengungkapkan perbedaan orientasi hubungan. Ini tidak hanya mencakup memiliki pertimbangan terhadap orang tetapi

manajer muda India menuntut lebih banyak perhatian pribadi. Para pemimpin India diminta untuk mengidentifikasi karyawan

yang menuntut tetapi memiliki kinerja yang kreatif dan menanggapi mereka sesuai kebutuhan. Budaya jarak kekuasaan yang

tinggi telah menciptakan jarak antara atasan dan bawahan. Jarak ini dapat diminimalkan dengan memberikan rasa aman

psikologis dalam tim oleh para pemimpin India. Praktik kepemimpinan bersama didorong di antara para pemimpin puncak di

India, untuk mewujudkan tata kelola perusahaan yang baik. Para pemimpin India tidak terlalu paham teknologi, tetapi penerus

mereka begitu. Penggunaan teknologi akan membantu memberdayakan bawahan terkait pengambilan keputusan yang cepat

dan arus informasi. Perspektif baru mengenai delegasi muncul di mana, tidak seperti praktik delegasi biasa di mana seorang

pemimpin akan mendelegasikan tugas rutinnya sendiri kepada bawahan, para pemimpin India mendorong pendelegasian

usaha eksperimental baru untuk pertumbuhan eksponensial bawahan.

Tabel 3 menyajikan temuan tentang teori kontingensi. Ini termasuk teori-teori seperti kepemimpinan untuk pembelajaran dan

pengetahuan organisasi, teori kepemimpinan kontingensi, teori jalur-tujuan, teori sumber daya kognitif, model keputusan normatif,
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teori siklus hidup dan teori penggantian kepemimpinan. Perkembangan bawahan adalah yang terpenting bagi para pemimpin India.

Pemimpin India serta pengikut menghargai kemajuan pengetahuan. Kepemimpinan saat ini adalah tentang menciptakan platform

untuk terhubung dengan pengikut dan menyebarkan informasi. Pengikut sampai batas tertentu suka dipegang oleh para pemimpin

untuk proyek strategis penting. Pemimpin di India beroperasi dari kekuatan posisi yang kuat, tetapi pengikut mengharapkan

hubungan pemimpin-anggota yang baik, kekuatan posisi yang lemah dan kekakuan struktural yang moderat. Dengan kata lain,

hubungan dan kekuatan ahli lebih dihargai oleh pengikut India. Teknologi membantu para pemimpin India untuk menggantikan diri

mereka sendiri dengan bantuan teknologi. Proyek yang berlokasi jauh mungkin tidak selalu melihat kehadiran seorang pemimpin;

dalam situasi seperti itu, kasus kepemimpinan dapat dibagikan secara elektronik dengan pengikut untuk menggantikan pemimpin.

Teori kepemimpinan pertukaran sosial terdiri dari teori-teori seperti hubungan angka dua vertikal (VDL), pertukaran

pemimpin-anggota (LMX), kepemimpinan relasional dan kepemimpinan individual (Tabel 4). Penemuan ini lebih konvergensi

dengan literatur yang ada. Penekanan pada hubungan yang kuat satu-ke-satu dengan pengikut dan pemangku kepentingan yang

menonjol dibayar oleh para pemimpin India. Bagi para pemimpin India, sulit untuk memberikan perhatian individual kepada

pengikut. Ini karena di masa lalu para pemimpin India percaya

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Table 3: Contingency Theory.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Contingency Leadership for Vera and Crossan • Indian leaders should ensure dissemination of knowledge to subordinates by creating and participating in
knowledge platforms
theory organizational (2004), Bierly
learning and III, Kessler, and
knowledge Christensen (2000) • Indian leaders have to ensure education and awareness of strategic thinking and long-term
strategic direction of the organizations
and Berson,

Nemanich,
Waldman, Galvin, • Indian leaders have to develop a perspective on learning orientation for long-term performance
improvements
and Keller (2006)
• Indian leaders have to ensure that employees share knowledge in an organization in a
boundaryless manner. Being boundaryless means being unstructured in a structured setting

• Indian leaders have to ensure that employees interact with outsiders especially in forums like
innovation labs, conferences and patent filing
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Table 3: ( Continued )

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Contingency Fiedler (1964), • In present-day context, subordinates in Indian organizations expect good leader–member
rrelationships, application of weak leader positional power and moderate task structure
leadership Ayman, Chemers,

theory and Fiedler (1995)

and Strube and
Garcia (1981)

Path-goal House and Dessler • In India, leaders have to handhold followers for achievement of difficult goals
theory (1974) and House

and Mitchel (1974)

Cognitive Murphy, Blyth, • Given the increasing expanse of information in the world, which influences strategic planning, Indian
leaders have to recognize that subordinates have decision-making capability and with rich information
resource theory and Fiedler (1992),
vis-à-vis the leader. Thus, nowadays a non-directive approach is more preferred than a directive
Vecchio (1990) and approach

Fiedler and Garcia

(1987)

• Indian leaders have to take the initiative to make subordinates deal with stressful
situations objectively, which would lead to arriving at more intelligent and rational
solutions
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Normative Vroom and Jago • Indian leaders while making decisions have to include relevant inputs from diverse business
experience base of individuals
decision model (1974), Field (1982)

and Vroom and

Yetton (1973 ) • Indian leaders while making decisions have to bring their experience as wisdom

• Indian leaders have to give respect to intuition in decisionmaking and not be constrained
structured quantitative thinking

• Indian leaders while making decisions have to understand the dynamic nature of
decision-making, quality of information, commitment of the implementers and appropriate
problem structuring for best decision-making

Life cycle Hersey and • Indian leaders have to understand that for Indian knowledge workers, leaders have to move from telling
and selling style to participative style. This is because of higher maturity (willingness and ability) of
theory Blanchard (1969) knowledge workers
and Smith and
Foti (1998)

Leadership Kerr and Jermier • In Indian organizations, good leadership practices can be recorded and transferred with the use of
multiple electronic mediums to remote locations to substitute for current leaders. Indian leaders are
substitute (1978) and Dionne, expected to facilitate this process
theory Yammarino,
Atwater, and James

(2002)
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Table 4: Social Exchange (Relational) Leadership Theories.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Social VDL Dansereau, Graen, and • Indian leaders have to create strong one-to-one relationships with subordinates

exchange Haga (1975), Graen and Uhl-Bien

(relational) (1995) and • Indian leaders have to create strong one-to-one relationships with salient stakeholders

leadership Liden and Graen (1980)

theories LMX Graen and Uhl-Bien • For Indian leaders rather than creating in-group and out-group members, it is
important for them to develop effective relationships
(1995) and Schrieshein,

Castro, and Cogliser

(1999) • In-group members believe that in case of any allegations, the leader will protect
followers

Relational Uhl-Bien (2006), Brower, • Indian leaders should set a defined process to achieve a Schoorman, and Tan
leadership purpose

(2000) and Cunliffe and Eriksen • The relationship between an Indian leader and a

(2011) subordinate should be inclusive in nature

Individualized Dansereau et al. (1995) and • In cases where subordinates lack competence, but have

leadership Yammarino and potential to excel for the organization, an Indian leader
Dansereau (2000) should provide individualized efforts to develop such employees

Leaders in India should share leadership-centric knowledge required by different employees at

different levels
 Temuan tentang Teori Kepemimpinan 107

menampung sebanyak mungkin bawahan untuk berbagi manfaat bagi banyak orang. Dalam skenario bisnis saat ini,

kebutuhan setiap pengikut berbeda. Satu obat tidak akan berhasil untuk semua. Oleh karena itu, para pemimpin India mulai

mempraktikkan pertimbangan individual.

Tabel 5 menjelaskan tema kepemimpinan dan pemrosesan informasi. Tema ini mendukung teori-teori seperti kognisi

pemimpin dan pengikut, kepemimpinan implisit, pemrosesan informasi dan teori pengambilan keputusan kepemimpinan

dan teori atribusi kepemimpinan. Di India, bawahan meminta persetujuan dari para pemimpin. Pengikut ingin para

pemimpin memahami kemampuan kognitif dan kekuatan intelektual pengikut agar mereka dapat digunakan untuk tujuan

organisasi. Pengikut ingin menerima informasi cepat dari para pemimpin, sehingga keputusan penting dapat diambil tepat

waktu. Para pemimpin India juga harus menghindari penilaian berbasis persepsi mengenai pengikut, untuk proses

pengambilan keputusan yang adil.

Teori Neo-Karismatik, salah satu tema yang paling banyak diteliti dalam literatur kepemimpinan, terdiri dari teori-teori seperti

teori kepemimpinan transformasional, kepemimpinan transaksional, kepemimpinan karismatik, kepemimpinan inspirasional, teori

kepemimpinan pengorbanan diri dan kepemimpinan ideologis dan pragmatis. Pengikut di India memandang para pemimpin

sebagai panutan mereka. Perilaku pemimpin mempengaruhi proses berpikir pengikut dan sistem kepercayaan mereka. Di India,

pemimpin harus jauh dari tabu sosial yang umumnya dianggap tidak baik. Pemimpin harus menunjukkan kehidupan sederhana

yang disiplin untuk mempengaruhi pengikut. Meskipun pengetahuan dihargai, berada dekat dengan kekuasaan juga dianggap
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bermanfaat. Untuk pemimpin dengan posisi dan kekuatan ahli, mudah dan nyaman untuk menjelaskan aturan baru kepada

karyawan. Dengan munculnya IT, aturan dapat disebarluaskan dan diterapkan ke sejumlah besar pengikut pada saat yang

bersamaan. Seorang pemimpin pemimpin sosial berkorban untuk masyarakat.

Teori kepemimpinan pertukaran sosial (relasional) mencakup dua teori 'kekuatan dan pengaruh kepemimpinan' dan 'teori politik

kepemimpinan / pengaruh taktik kepemimpinan' (Tabel 7). Sistem organisasi India memahami pentingnya kekuasaan. Pertukaran

terjadi dengan sukses di India jika salah satu anggota memiliki kekuatan lebih. Perasaan mendapatkan sesuatu sebagai imbalan

sangat mendalam dalam pola pikir orang India. Oleh karena itu, bahkan kepemimpinan atau pengaruh politik sebagai sumber

kekuasaan memiliki pengaruh yang dalam di antara pengikut dan pemimpin India.

Teori yang berpusat pada pengikut terdiri dari dua teori utama: teori pengikut dan romantisme kepemimpinan (Tabel 8).

Keterlibatan pengikut dalam pengambilan keputusan sangat penting bagi pekerja pengetahuan. Pengikut atau basis karyawan

muda mungkin lebih sadar akan nuansa teknis tertentu. Para pemimpin menggunakan kebijaksanaan mereka untuk

menyalurkan ide dan melakukan tugas dengan sukses. Dalam konteks India, pengikut meniru pemimpin mereka. Ini terbukti

dalam skenario politik dan bisnis.

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Table 5: Leadership and Information Processing.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Leadership Leader and Schaubroeck, Lam, Followers in India increasingly believe that they have high cognitive interdependence with their leaders.

and follower and Peng (2011) Leaders have to appreciate cognitive contributions by followers. Leaders have to expand the information

information cognitions scope among the followers. In India, the culture is such that the followers look forward for ideal leader

processing characteristics. The followers expect leaders to guide them with knowledge in difficult situations and help

them in expanding their knowledge base

Implicit Eden and Leviatan In India, follower–leader relationship is increasingly becoming sensitive,
leadership (1975), Offerman, intelligence-oriented and performance-driven
Kennedy, andWirtz
Followers’ expectations increasingly indicate lesser scope for masculinity and tyranny in leader–follower
(1994) and House,
relationship
Javidan, Hanges,

and Dorfman (2002)

Information Lord, Foti, and De Indian leaders indicated that organizational strategic decisionmaking has to be timely
processing and Vader (1984)
decision-making
In India, instructions regarding decision has to be communicated to followers instantly with the
theories of
deployment of IT tools as an enabler
leadership

Attribution Calder (1977) and Indian leaders should attribute facts regarding subordinates based on experiences rather than perception.

theories of Pfeffer (1977) Perception-based attribution is common flaw among Indian leaders

leadership
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Table 6: Neo-Charismatic Theories.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Neo-charismatic Transformational Judge and Piccolo (2004), In India, organizational leaders have to employ Bass and Avolio (1993)
theories leadership theory transformational characteristics for strategic
and Avolio and Bass change interventions so that behavioural changes in subordinate could

(1995) be demonstrated and achieved

Transactional Judge and Piccolo (2004), In India, transactional leadership is required Lowe, Kroeck, and
leadership for efficiency and effectiveness improvement of

Sivasubramanium (1996), subordinates for short-term goal achievements Avolio, Bass, and Jung

(1999) and Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson

(2003)

Charismatic Bryman (1992), Conger Indian leaders who bring in wisdom (from their rich experience) add to
leadership (1988), Shamir, House, their charismatic dimension of leadership in the organization, which is
and Arthur (1993) highly valued in Indian organization
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Table 6: ( Continued )

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Inspirational Bass (1990), Joshi, Indian leaders lead by setting an example for followers to choose the right path

leadership Lazarova, and Liao (business or lifestyle). This again emancipates from ancient Indian scriptures of

(2009) and Waldman, leaders leading by selfdiscipline

Balthazard, and
Peterson (2011)

Self-sacrificial Choi and Mai-Dalton In the Indian social sector, followers recognize the
leadership theory (1999) and Decremer and leaders’ self-sacrifice

Van-Knippenberg (2004)
Self-sacrifices made by leaders become followers’ motivation and datum for

performance

Ideological Mumford (2006), Given the challenges in Indian organizations

and pragmatic Bedell-Avers, Hunter, as well as the dynamics of business competitive environment

leadership and Mumford (2008), leaders have to balance their

Hunter, Bedell-Avers, and pragmatic requirements with their ideological Mumford (2009)
positions
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Table 7: Social Exchange (Relational) Leadership Theories.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Power and Power and influence Vecchio (2007), Followers in India are increasingly driven by knowledge and
influence of Holander (1993) and expertise power than referent power, therefore, leaders have to Van-Knippenberg
theories leadership take cognizance of this changing power structure
and Hogg (2004)
Indian leaders have to emphasize more on developing knowledge power than positional

power

Political theory Deluga (1988) In India, leaders should have very good understanding of organizational rules and
of leadership/ regulations
influence tactics
In India, it is easy for leaders to quickly disseminate rules and regulations among all employees and
of leadership
educate them. This is possible because of the advent of IT tools and its wide usage of the same in

Indian business firms

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Table 8: Follower-Centric Theories.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Follower-centric Followership Baker (2007), Uhl- The influence of followers on leaders in decisionmaking process is becoming
theories theory Bien, Riggio, Lowe, increasingly important in determining successful leadership function
and Carsten (2014),

Bligh, (2011) and Van Vugt, Hogan, and

Leaders should take special initiatives in forming teams having complementary skill sets. In India,

leaders have to utilize capabilities of subordinates and allocate responsibilities judiciously

Kaiser (2008)

Romance of Meindl (1995), Meindl, In the Indian context, the understanding and liking of Ehrlich, and Dukerich followers about the
leadership leadership style and their leader’s (1985) and Meindl and personality matter more

Ehrlich (1987)
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Table 9: Leadership of Diverse and Cross-Cultural Relationships.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Leadership of Leadership and Eagly and Karau In India, increased participation of women in work
diverse and diversity [gender (1991), Eagly and force requires more women representatives in leadership

cross-cultural (dis)advantages] Chin (2010) and positions. Therefore, inclusion of more women leaders in top
relationships Morrison (1992) management team (TMT) is the need of the hour

The rise of technology in Indian business organizations have made it imperative that technology

savvy younger generation is also included in strategic leadership decision-making positions

Increased professionalism of Indian family businesses called for increased proportion of

professional managers in leadership positions

Cross-cultural House, Wright, Increased internationalization of Indian business means more expatriates are to be
leadership and Aditya included in strategic leadership positions of Indian firms
(GLOBE) (1997), Ang and
Van Dyne (2015)
Indian business leaders while visiting other countries should be open to their
and Chhokar,
culture
Brodbeck, and
House (2013) For Indian firms to internationalize competitively in the developed markets, Indian manufacturing

and services firms have to learn and imbibe the business processes and practices to develop the

desired culture
 114 Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya dan Sumi Jha

Tema kepemimpinan keragaman dan hubungan lintas budaya mencakup teori-teori seperti kepemimpinan dan keragaman

[keunggulan gender (dis)] dan kepemimpinan lintas budaya (GLOBE) (Tabel 9). Keragaman adalah salah satu masalah utama

yang dihadapi organisasi India. Keragaman gender dan usia menjadi perhatian utama. Dengan meningkatnya partisipasi

perempuan dalam angkatan kerja India, ada perubahan dalam kebijakan dan praktik. Seorang pemimpin harus memastikan

perubahan perilaku di antara pria untuk membantu rekan wanita tumbuh dan memecahkan langit-langit kaca. Organisasi India,

terutama bank, menciptakan jalur perempuan untuk posisi kepemimpinan. Keragaman usia dianggap penting bagi sebuah

organisasi. Generasi muda lebih paham teknologi dan dapat beradaptasi dengan perubahan kebutuhan teknologi lebih cepat.

Karyawan yang berpengalaman menerapkan pengetahuan pengalaman mereka. Para pemimpin India dituntut untuk lebih

adaptif terhadap tuntutan budaya yang berubah dengan praktik internasionalisasi dan berbagai perusahaan multinasional yang

datang ke India.

Tabel 10 membahas tentang kepemimpinan tim tema. Tema ini mencakup kepemimpinan dalam tim dan teori kelompok keputusan.

India sebagai masyarakat kolektivis bekerja dalam tim dan mencapai tujuan yang dapat dicapai dengan menggunakan keterampilan

yang saling melengkapi. Dalam konteks India, perhatian pribadi pemimpin ke tim yang berbeda membantu anggota tim dalam

mewujudkan target yang sulit.

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Fokus kajiannya adalah tema kepemimpinan strategis. Kepemimpinan strategis mencakup teori-teori kepemimpinan seperti

kepemimpinan strategis / eksekutif puncak, teori eselon atas dan kepemimpinan publik (misalnya, presiden, politisi profesional)

(Tabel 11). Peran utama yang dapat dimainkan oleh para pemimpin strategis dalam organisasi India adalah untuk menyebarkan

tujuan strategis kepada bawahan atau eksekutif. Pemutusan hubungan bawahan atau manajer tingkat menengah dengan pemimpin

strategis dapat dikurangi dengan langkah kecil komunikasi terbuka dan transparansi. Pemimpin India cenderung berkomunikasi

dalam konteks tinggi

Tabel 10: Kepemimpinan Tim.

Tematik Kepemimpinan Jangkar Komentar tematik

Kategori Teori Penulis (Divergensi dan Konvergensi

Dari Teori Mapan)

Tim Kepemimpinan Taggar, Hackew, Dalam konteks India, pemimpin harus secara

kepemimpinan dalam tim dan Saha (1999), pribadi terlibat dengan tim yang mengerjakan

dan Hoch dan target yang diperluas

keputusan Kozlowski (2014)

kelompok dan Dinh et al. inovasi untuk terwujud
(2014)
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Table 11: Strategic Leadership.

Thematic Leadership Theory Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category From Established Theories)

Strategic Strategic/ Finkelstein and Hambrick All international business strategic initiatives (new business ventures and

leadership top executive (1996), Vera and Crossan (2004), Ireland international strategic alliances) have to be anchored with dedicated focus at the

leadership and Hitt (1999) and Boal and Hooijberg TMT level

(2001)

Upper echelons Hambrick (2007), Hambrick Indian leaders have to undertake conscious effort to diffuse strategic perspectives

theory and Mason (1984) and Waldman, throughout the organizations. In Indian firms often strategic vision is restricted at the

Javidan, and top

Varella (2004)

Public leadership Moynihan and Ingraham In India, large business organizational leaders and PSU leaders are also seen as public

(e.g., presidential, (2004), Crosby and Bryson (2010) and Silvia leaders

professional and

politician) McGuire (2010)

 116 Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya dan Sumi Jha

budaya dan, oleh karena itu, mungkin terdengar tidak jelas saat menjelaskan tujuan strategis. Perluasan bisnis India ke

berbagai negara juga membutuhkan waktu dan keahlian para pemimpin dalam inisiatif internasionalisasi.

Konsep teori kepemimpinan etis / moral menjelaskan teori-teori seperti kepemimpinan otentik, teori kepemimpinan etis, teori

kepemimpinan pelayan dan teori kepemimpinan spiritual (Tabel 12). Dengan meningkatnya rumah bisnis dan persaingan di India,

organisasi dengan praktik yang tidak etis tidak luput. Kepemimpinan organisasi ingin berada dalam posisi yang menguntungkan, di

mana para pemimpin dapat membuat janji palsu. Para pemimpin terkadang memutarbalikkan informasi atau selama suatu periode

pernyataan yang dijanjikan tidak berlaku. Harapan dasar dari para pemimpin dalam organisasi adalah memastikan pertumbuhan

dan keberlanjutan organisasi sehingga karyawan dan pemangku kepentingan lainnya dapat memperoleh manfaat. Kepemimpinan

yang melayani memastikan bahwa para pemimpin akan mendengarkan kebutuhan para pengikut.

Tabel 13 membahas tema kemunculan dan perkembangan kepemimpinan. Tema ini mencakup dua teori:

pengembangan kepemimpinan dan kemunculan kepemimpinan. Meskipun di India kuno kami memiliki guru (guru) yang

akan membimbing murid-muridnya, itu tidak dapat diteruskan secara efektif dalam situasi bisnis. Para pemimpin India

harus mulai membimbing dan melatih bawahan mereka untuk membuat baris komando kedua. Saat berdiskusi, beberapa

responden menekankan perlunya mendampingi bawahan tentang karir serta kecakapan hidup oleh pemimpin yang
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efektif. Organisasi harus melacak bawahan tersebut dan mengidentifikasi tanda awal kepemimpinan yang muncul.

Organisasi India sedang membangun program pengembangan kepemimpinan yang kuat untuk kebutuhan kepemimpinan

jangka panjang.

Perspektif berbasis identitas mencakup teori-teori seperti teori identitas sosial tentang kepemimpinan dan identitas serta teori proses

identifikasi kepemimpinan (Tabel 14). Para pemimpin India berdiskusi di antara kumpulan sumber tepercaya untuk mengidentifikasi calon

pemimpin. Orang India cenderung meniru pemimpin mereka. Pemimpin harus mendorong karyawan / pengikut untuk mengembangkan

identitas mereka sendiri dalam kerangka sosial tertentu. Identitas mereka sendiri akan lebih kuat daripada meniru pemimpin. Di India,

proses untuk mengembangkan identitas pengikut yang berbeda oleh para pemimpin belum dimulai dalam jumlah besar. Oleh karena itu,

karyawan yang bekerja di lingkungan budaya yang berbeda merasa sulit untuk menyesuaikan pada awalnya, tetapi secara bertahap

menyesuaikan diri dalam menciptakan identitas diri yang baru.

Tabel 15 berurusan dengan perspektif kontekstual, kompleksitas dan sistem kepemimpinan. Ini terdiri dari lima

teori yaitu, teori kepemimpinan kontekstual, teori kompleksitas kepemimpinan, pendekatan jaringan sosial untuk

kepemimpinan, kepemimpinan integratif dan model keterkaitan ganda kepemimpinan adaptif. Para pemimpin bisnis di

India mengalami perubahan karena

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Table 12: Ethical/Moral Leadership Theories.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and convergence

Category Theory from established theories)

Ethical/ Authentic Luthans and Avolio leadership Indian leaders should share information with followers in a transparent and open manner. The information available

moral (2003) and Gardner, to leaders should be shared with followers as it is without distortion. In India, followers expect no difference in

leadership Avolio, Luthans, May, leaders’ espoused and actual behaviour

theories and Walumbwa (2005)

In India, individuals grow as leaders under tremendous competitive stress. In certain cases, the health of such leaders

suffers. Authentic leadership also implies that a leader indicates his/her health condition to all the stakeholders. This

provides the stakeholders with the requisite perspective regarding the risks and uncertainties that the organization

confront

Ethical Burns (1978), Rawls Leaders in India have to share knowledge within industry and develop practices to help

leadership (1971), Beauchamp advancement of new knowledge

theory and Bowie (1988) and Costa

Indian leaders are also expected to proactively take action against business wrongdoing
(1998)

Servant Greenleaf and Spears In India, when leaders are seen as actively serving the needs of followers and the organization for attainment

leadership (2002), Dennis, Kinzlertheory of desired goals, it is appreciated

Norheim, and Bocarnea

The broader society in India is now expecting that leaders also
(2010), Russell and Stone (2002) and Stone,
genuinely serve stakeholders for the benefit of society at large
Russell, and Patterson (2004)

Spiritual Sanders (1994), Fry, In India, followers are increasingly appreciating leaders who are at the self-actualization stage and are

leadership Vitucci, and Cedillo theory intrinsically motivated to connect at self-level

(2005) and Fry (2003)

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Table 13: Leadership Emergence and Development.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory From Established Theories)

Leadership Leadership Bass and Avolio (1997) In India, leaders should identify and nurture talented employees of organization through mentoring

emergence and development and Day (2001) and coaching facilities. Indian business leaders are finding it very challenging to retain unique

development talented employees. This is because in a growing and competitive market talent can easily be lost to

competitors

Followers look up to leaders who they can follow as role models and get involved in mentoring and

coaching with leaders for self-growth and development in organizations. This can be studied with two

perspectives. One being followers not able to find the right role models for personal growth. Second,

followers’ growth is bounded by the capabilities of role models (mentors). This is becoming challenging

in India

In India, leaders should create a mechanism to interact with junior-level employees

for leadership development

Leadership Fisher (1974), Wolff, The advent of IT and participative leadership practices are helping in creating sound
emergence Pescosolido, and environment for emergent leadership in Indian organizations
Druskat (2002) and
Taggar et al. (1999)
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Table 14: Identity-Based Perspectives.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory From Established Theories)

Identity-based Social identity Hogg (2001) and In India, leaders have to identify the uniqueness of individual contribution in
perspectives theory of Albert, Ashforth and formal and informal set up
leadership Dutton (2000)

Identity and Albert et al. (2000) When Indian leaders are expected to extend their identity as per the foreign context, leadership

identification identity maintenance is challenging

process theory

of leadership
Organizations have to device special practices to reduce this challenge for leaders. Leaders

have to identify talented employees and assign challenging roles and tasks to such

employees. This would enrich the employee, which would in turn enhance followers’ identity
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Table 15: Contextual, Complexity and Systems Perspectives of Leadership.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Authors Thematic remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory From Established Theories)

Contextual, Contextual Day (2001), Day, Leaders in India have to constantly manage businesses which

complexity theory of Fleenor, Atwater, are in dynamic equilibrium and can move towards chaos in the following
and systems leadership Sturm, and McKee four parameters namely, market, technology,
perspectives (2014), Osborn, regulation and social communities. Leaders have to manage

of Hunt, and Jauch dynamic equilibrium in such a way that it would not move to chaotic state in
leadership (2002), Uhl-Bien, any of the four parameters
Marion, and
The notion of chaos and the nature of dynamic equilibrium are dependent on life cycle stage of
McKelvey (2007)
business and the nature of industry
and Schneider and

Somers (2006)

Complexity Schneider and Given the dynamic nature of business environment, leaders have to interact with potential suppliers, key customers

theory of Somers (2006), and potential customers. Based on the ever-changing mandates driven by these co-values creating stakeholders,

leadership Uhl-Bien et al. organizations have to adapt constantly. The regulatory environment in India is evolving with the presence of

(2007) and institutional voids. Given this context, it is important for firm leaders to interact with the government, regulatory

Morrison (2012) bodies and quasi-regulatory associations. This would help in managing the regulatory turbulence smoothly

Furthermore, when Indian firms are internationalizing it is expected that the Indian business leaders manage the

foreign regulatory environment by being in close proximity with foreign government

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Social Balkundi and In India leaders have to consciously create an ecosystem with suppliers for value co-creation in

network Kilduff (2006), organizations

approaches to Mehra, Dixon,

Leaders have to consciously create an ecosystem with key customers for value creation
leadership Brass, and

Robertson (2006)

and Pastor and

Mayo (2002)

Integrative Moynihan and Indian leaders must acknowledge that it is desired to align followers’ needs, motives and personalities with both

leadership Ingraham (2004) organizational goals and environmental needs to motivate followers. This was traditionally difficult in Indian context

and Crosby and as the social, technological, market and environmental contexts were very diverse and dynamic

Bryson (2010)

Adaptive Heifetz, Grashow, The notion that leaders adjust and adapt their leadership style to lead organizations in different
leadership and Linsky (2009), contexts is very important in a complex, dynamic and diverse market as in India
multiple Yukl and Mahsud
linkage model (2010) and Xiao,
Seagull, Mackenzie,

and Klein (2004)

 122 Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya dan Sumi Jha

perubahan kepemimpinan politik. Pengalaman pemimpin, pengumuman politik baru, perubahan dalam cara berbisnis secara

global dan terakhir tuntutan tempat kerja yang berubah, di pasar yang sedang berkembang. Perubahan kontekstual ini terlihat

jelas bagi para pemimpin bisnis India. Dalam upaya mengelola lingkungan bisnis yang kompleks, para pemimpin India harus

memiliki sistem nilai bisnis yang tegas - nilai yang diperlukan untuk internasionalisasi, nilai kreasi bersama dengan pemangku

kepentingan eksternal, nilai yang dibutuhkan untuk memotivasi dan memahami karyawan organisasi - dan pemimpin harus

beradaptasi dengan perubahan situasi tanpa mengorbankan nilai.

Tema yang mengarah pada kreativitas, inovasi, dan perubahan adalah kebutuhan saat ini. Tema ini mencakup teori-teori

seperti memimpin kreativitas dan inovasi serta memimpin perubahan dalam organisasi. Para pemimpin India harus

mempromosikan budaya inovasi. Cara inovasi India 'Jugaad' mungkin tidak menghasilkan pencapaian tujuan jangka panjang. Para

pemimpin India menciptakan platform teknologi untuk mempromosikan inovasi, di mana karyawan dapat berbagi ide, berdiskusi,

dan membawanya ke tingkat kedua untuk mewujudkannya. Pemimpin harus memfasilitasi kebebasan untuk bekerja dengan ide,

bekerja lintas disiplin dan membuat forum untuk berdiskusi terbuka tentang ide-ide yang dipilih. Para pemimpin India ditemukan

mempertahankan status quo dan menghindari risiko. Para pemimpin di India mencoba mengubah citra dan mulai menjadi agen

perubahan untuk inisiatif perubahan dalam organisasi.

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Tabel 17 menyajikan beberapa kategori tematik kepemimpinan. Semua pengusaha adalah pemimpin atau semua pemimpin

adalah pengusaha, merupakan pertanyaan yang bahkan pemimpin responden memiliki pandangan yang berbeda. Para pemimpin

dengan ragu-ragu menyetujui pentingnya rasa kepemilikan yang dibawa oleh para pengusaha. Karyawan yang memiliki rasa

memiliki akan dianggap berharga bagi organisasi. E-leadership adalah konsep lain yang sedang populer di India karena dorongan

dari pemerintah dan peningkatan kesadaran digital dari generasi muda. Pemimpin muda pemula merasa mudah dan cepat untuk

terhubung secara digital. Globalisasi dan internasionalisasi yang meningkat juga memaksa perusahaan untuk bekerja secara

virtual. Front manajemen orang sangat berbeda dalam e-leadership dibandingkan dengan kepemimpinan tradisional.

Sisi gelap kepemimpinan juga meningkat dalam bahasa penelitian. Para pemimpin di India merasa bahwa penting untuk memahami

perilaku nyata dan pendukung para pemimpin. Beberapa pemimpin mempengaruhi organisasi secara negatif karena keterlambatan dalam

pengambilan keputusan. Ini sangat terbukti di India. Bekerja secara otoritatif dan kasar dengan bawahan untuk menyelesaikan pekerjaan

adalah praktik umum di perusahaan. Oleh karena itu, tema kepemimpinan lain yang seimbang secara emosional adalah kebutuhan

pengaturan perusahaan saat ini. Pemimpin yang seimbang secara emosional akan memiliki kesabaran untuk mendengarkan dan bertindak

secara rasional.
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Table 16: Leading for Creativity, Innovation and Change.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory From Established Theories)

Leading for Leading for Jaussi and Dionne In India, leaders are expected to facilitate the development of supplier innovation culture
creativity, creativity and (2003), Mumford
innovation, innovation and Licuanan (2004)
Drive innovation culture by recognizing and rewarding innovative ideas
and change and Amabile (1988)

Facilitate effective strategic HRM practices which develop

innovation-oriented system

Create boundaryless innovation platform

Leading Kotter (1996), Weick In India, leaders are expected to be the change agents for their organization which is undergoing change

change in and Quinn (1999)

organizations/ and Van de Ven and Leader should lead the change initiative by being part of a team change
Poole (1995)
as otherwise change initiative would not be successful
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Table 17: Entrepreneurial Leadership, E-Leadership, Destructive/Abusive Supervision/Toxic Leadership, Emotions and Leadership.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory From Established Theories)

Entrepreneurial Gupta,MacMillan, and Surie (2004), Prabhu (1999) and Indian leaders are expected to continuously demonstrate entrepreneurial instinct so as to promote

leadership Kuratko (2007) intrapreneurship

E-leadership Avolio, Kahai, and Dodge (2001), Cascio and Shurygailo Equipped with the advent of virtual reality technology context, good leadership practices of developed

(effects of task, (2003) and Avolio and Kahai (2003) nations have to be transferred to Indian manufacturing and service organizations up to team levels.

technology, Teammembers should involve iteratively in technology or culture transfer without any psychological

distance and distances among teammembers

virtuality)

Furthermore, with the advent of electronic platforms leaders are expected to interact with

followers across multiple mediums and channels 24/7

Destructive/ Einarsen, Aasland, and Skogstad (2007), Ferris, Zinko, In India, business accountability systems were traditionally weak. Leaders are expected to mend

abusive Brouer, Buckley, and Harvey (2007), Aasland, Skogstad, and curb all the means of destructive leadership behaviour

supervision/ Notelaers,

toxic
Leadership vetting also requires strong regulatory
leadership Nielsen, and Einarsen (2010), Schyns mechanisms and moral and ethical perspectives within Green, and LeBreton

and Schilling (2013) and Krasikova,

organizations
(2013)

Emotions and George (2000), Humphrey (2002) and Indian leaders are expected to be emotionally balanced

leadership Fambrough and Hart (2008)

Leaders have to be not sympathetic but empathetic towards the

emotional needs of the followers

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Table 18: Other Established Theories.

Thematic Leadership Anchor Authors Thematic Remarks (Divergence and Convergence

Category Theory From Established Theories)

Other Pygmalion Eden (1990, 1993), Eden and Ravid (1982) and Indian leaders should stretch followers more than followers’ capability so that followers would

established effect White and Locke (2000) stretch and raise their performance level

theories

This is especially relevant in India in new product development, innovation and

embracing change initiatives

Aesthetic Hansen, Ropo, and Sauer (2007), Guillet de Monthoux, Leaders should always be seeking information and derive meaning from information using both senses

leadership Gustafsson, and Sjöstrand (2007) and feelings

Leader Dinh et al. (2014) Indian leaders should create communication platforms where employees can post their critique on

error and leadership and strategy

recovery
Indian leaders have to monitor social media to comprehend societal
critiques for their own strategy

Decision Saaty (1990) Indian leaders should understand that decisions taken by leaders have finite shelf life because of

process the dynamic nature of business. Leaders’ decisions have to be modified after periodic reviews

theory

Outstanding Ligon, Hunter, andMumford leadership Actual performance of Indian leaders should exceed the expectations of the followers
(2008), Holmberg and Åkerblom (2001) and Tamkin, and market
Pearson, Hirsh, and Constable (2010)
 126 Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya dan Sumi Jha

Teori-teori mapan lainnya seperti yang disebutkan dalam Tabel 18 adalah efek pygmalion, kepemimpinan estetika, kesalahan

dan pemulihan pemimpin, teori proses keputusan dan kepemimpinan yang luar biasa. Responden menyebutkan bahwa

pengambilan keputusan merupakan proses rasionalitas yang terikat. Keputusan yang diambil pemimpin dibatasi oleh informasi

tertentu. Oleh karena itu, ada kemungkinan kesalahan tertentu. Mekanisme kesalahan dan proses pemulihan bagi pemimpin

membutuhkan penguatan. Para pemimpin di India mencoba mendekati proses membangun menggunakan media sosial.

Kesimpulannya, teori-teori kepemimpinan yang berbeda mendalilkan fenomena kepemimpinan yang berbeda.

Sementara daftar temuan, terbukti bahwa beberapa teori-praktek kepemimpinan lebih menonjol di India. Ditemukan juga

bahwa beberapa konsep kepemimpinan muncul dan berbeda dari negara-negara Barat. Ada perbedaan dalam bagaimana

para pemimpin akan beroperasi secara tradisional versus konteks saat ini. Temuan-temuan ini diringkas di bagian

kontribusi buku ini.

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