Resume 06 – Change Management

MENGEVALUASIKAN DAN MENGEMBANGKAN PERUBAHAN ORGANISASI

Faktor Perubahan Organisasi

• Lingkungan yang bersifat dinamis, kompleks dan terkadang juga tidak dapat
diprediksikan membuat organisasi harus melakukan perubahan secara berkelanjutan.
• Faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan perubahan berasal dari dalam maupun luar
organisasi yaitu :
o Faktor internal : tujuan, strategi dan kebijakan organisasi, kegiatan, dan
teknologi yang digunakan.
o Faktor eskternal : politik, pendidikan, ekonomi, sosial, kebudayaan, dan
teknologi.

Menangani Perubahan Organisasi

• Menilai kebutuhan terhadap perubahan
Mengenali masalah yang timbul dan sumber penyebab masalah tersebut.
• Menentukan perubahan yang harus dilakukan
Menentukan kondisi seperti apa yang diharapkan di masa depan dan mengidentifikasi
hambatan untuk mencapainya.
• Mengimplementasikan perubahan
Melakukan perubahan, baik secara bottom-up (instruktif) maupun top-down
(partisipatif)
• Mengevaluasi perubahan
Apakah perubahan sesuai harapan? Bagaimana jika dibandingkan dengan perubahan
yang menajdi acuan.

Manajer : Agent Of Change

• Agent of change, seseorang atau sekelompok orang yang berusaha mengubah
perilaku orang lain atau sistem sosial yang ada di dalam organisasi tersebut.
• Top-down change, perubahan yang ditentukan oleh manajemen tingkat atas,
umumnya itu bersifat strategis dan komprehensif.
• Bottom-up change, usul perubahan ini berasal dari individu yang ada di dalamnya itu
organisasi, didukung juga oleh manajer menengah dan tingkat bawah sebagai agen
perubahan.

Jenis Perubahan Organisasi

• Perubahan tidak terencana (unplanned change)
o Perubahan bersifat spontan, tanpa ada arahan dari agen perubahan, misal:
pemogokan liar yang membuat pabrik tutup, atau konflik interpersonal yang
menghasilkan prosedur baru dalam hubungan antar departemen.
• Perubahan terencana (planned change)
o Perubahan dihasilkan oleh usaha-usaha yang dilakukan oleh agen perubahan.
Perubahan ini merupakan respon dari adanya perbedaan antara
• apa yang diharapkan dan kondisi aktual (performance gap).

Target Perubahan Organisasi

 • Tugas: sifat dasar pekerjaan yang ditunjukkan oleh misi, tujuan dan strategi organisasi
serta desain pekerjaan untuk individu/kelompok.
• SDM/personalia: perilaku dan kemampuan karyawan serta sistem SDM yang
mendukungnya.
• Budaya: sistem nilai yang dimiliki organisasi secara keseluruhan serta norma yang
mengarahkan perilku individu/kelompok.
• Teknologi: teknologi untuk mendukung desain pekerjaan, mengatur aliran kerja, dan
mengintegrasikan manusia dan mesin dalam sistem kerja.
• Struktur: susunan organisasi sebagai sistem kompleks termasuk birokrasi, jalur
wewenang dan komunikasinya.

Tahapan Perubahan Organisasi

• Unfreezing
o Orang merasakan adanya kebutuhan untuk berubah dan mempersiapkan diri
untuk perubahan tersebut.
o Hal ini dapat dilakukan dengan:
§ Membangun hubungan baik dengan orang- orang yang terlibat dalam
perubahan
§ Membantu orang menyadari bahwa perilaku lama tidak efektif
§ Meminimalkan resistensi terhadap perubahan
• Changing
o Tahapan implementasi perubahan, orang mulai mencoba perilaku baru
dengan harapan akan menaikkan efektifitasnya.
o Hal ini dapat dilakukan dengan:
§ Mengidentifikasi perilaku baru yang lebih efektif
§ Memilih perubahan yang tepat
§ Mulai melakukan perubahan
• Refreezing
o Tahapan dimana orang memandang bahwa perilaku baru yang telah
dicobanya selama
o periode “changing” menjadi bagian dari orang tersebut.
o Hal ini dilakukan dengan:
§ Menciptakan penerimaan dan keberlanjutan terhadap perilaku baru.
§ Menyediakan dukungan sumber daya yang diperlukan.
§ Menggunakan reward berbasis kinerja dan penguatan positif.

Pengembangan Organisasi
• Pengembangan organisasi (organization development/OD) adalah suatu usaha jangka
panjang untuk meningkatkan kemampuan organisasi dalam menghadapi kondisi
lingkungan dan menyelesaikan permasalahannya.
• OD bisa dikatakan sebagai “perubahan terencana plus”, dimana OD menciptakan
suatu perubahan dengan suatu cara yang membuat anggota organisasi dapat
mengembangkan kemampuannya untuk secara aktif terus melanjutkan
pembaharuan.

Mengevaluasi Intervensi Pengembangan Organisasi

• Klasifikasi Intervensi
a. Human Process Interventon (Intervensi Proses Manusia)
o Pada metode ini intervensi berfokus pada orang dalam organisasi dan proses
melalui mana anggota dan organisasi mencapai tujuan organisasi. Proses ini
meliputi komunikasi, pemecahan masalah, pengambilan keputusan kelompok,
dan kepemimpinan.
b. Human Resources Management Intervention (Intervensi Manajemen Sumber
Daya Manusia)
o Metode intervensi ini berfokus pada intrvensi yang digunakan untuk
mengembangkan, mengintegrasikan, dan mendukung manusia atau orang
dalam organisasi.
c. Technostruktural Intervention
o Metode intervensi ini berfokus pada perubahan struktur dan desain organisasi.
Sehingga lebih cenderung pada aspek infrastruktur organisasi. Metode
perubahan ini mengahsilkan pengingkatan perhatian dalam OD,
d. Strategic Intervention
o Intervensi ini berfokus pada pilihan strategis untuk mengalokasikan sumber
daya organisasi untuk mendapatkan keuntungan kompetitif dan menciptakan
nilai-nilai yang mendorong kinerja tugas yang sesuai di seluruh perusahaan.
• Memilih intervensi yang tepat, kita dapat mengikuti beberapa cauan pertanyaan
yaitu :
1. Apakah hasil yang didapat dari memilijh suatu teknik intervensi?
2. Apakah dampak dari pemilihan suatau teknik intervensi?
3. Bagaimana suatu teknik intervensi di implementasikan?

Fase Tindakan (Intervensi) Pengembangan Organisasi

Bentuk Startegi Perubahan Organisasi

 EVALUATING AND INSTITUTIONALIZING
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

Topics:
1. Evaluating Organization Development Interventions
2. Institutionalizing Organizational Change

Evaluating Organization Development Interventions

There are two distinct types of OD evaluation:

• to guide the implementation of interventions and
• to assess their overall impact.
The key issues in evaluation are measurement and research design.

Implementation and Evaluation Feedback

Both kinds of evaluation provide organization members with feedback about interventions.

• Evaluation aimed at guiding implementation may be called implementation feedback,

• Assessment intended to discover intervention outcomes may be called evaluation
feedback
• Evaluation feedback is used to assess the overall effectiveness of the program.

Measurement
Selecting Appropriate Variables

Ideally, the variables measured in OD evaluation should derive from the theory or conceptual
model underlying the intervention. For example, the job- level diagnostic model described in
Chapter 5 proposes several major features of work: task variety, feedback, and autonomy
 • Measuring both intervention and outcome variables is necessary for implementation
and evaluation feedback.
• It generally is assumed that the intervention has been implemented, and attention,
therefore, is directed to its
• impact on such organizational outcomes as performance, absenteeism, and
satisfaction.
• Measurement of the intervention variables helps determine the correct interpretation
of outcome measures.

The outcomes are in two broad categories:

a. participation-membership including: absenteeism, tardiness, turnover, internal

employment stability, and strikes and work stoppages;
b. performance on the job, including: productivity, quality, grievances, accidents,
unscheduled machine downtime and repair, material and supply overuse, and
inventory shrinkage.

Designing Good Measures

Operational Definition.
• A good measure is operationally defined; that is, it specifies the empirical data
needed, how they will be collected and, most important, how they will be converted
from data to information.
• Each of the measurement methods described in Chapter6—questionnaires,
interviews, observations, and unobtrusive measures—has advantages and
disadvantages.
• Many of these characteristics are linked to the extent to which a measurement is
operationally defined, reliable, and valid.
• Operational definitions are extremely important in measurement because theyt ell OD
practitioners and organization members exactly how diagnostic, intervention, and
outcome variables will be measured.

Designing Good Measures

Reliability. Reliability concerns the extent to which a measure represents the “true” value of
a variable—that is, how accurately the operational definition translates data into information.

OD practitioners can improve the reliability of their measures in four ways:

1. rigorously and operationally define the chosen variables.

2. use multiple methods to measure a particular variable.
3. use multiple items to measure the same variable on a questionnaire.
4. use standardized instruments.
Designing Good Measures
Validity. Validity concerns the extent to which a measure actually reflects the variable it is
intended to measure.

OD practitioners can increase the validity of their measures in several ways:

1. ask colleagues and organization members if a proposed measure actually represents

a particular variable. This is called face validity or content validity.
 2. use multiple measures of the same variable, as described in the section about
reliability, to make preliminary assessments of the measure’s criterion or convergent
validity.
3. predictive validity is demonstrated when the variable of interest accurately forecasts
another variable over time.

Research Design
The key issue is how to design the assessment to show whether the intervention did in fact
produce the observed results. This is called internal validity.

The secondary question of whether the intervention would work similarly in other situations
is referred to as external validity.

Given the problems inherent in assessing OD interventions, practitioners have turned to

quasi- experimental research designs. Although several quasi-experimental designs are
available, those with the following three features are particularly powerful for assessing
changes:

• Longitudinal measurement. This involves measuring results repeatedly over relatively

long time periods. Ideally, the data collection should start before the change program is
implemented and continue for a period considered reasonable for producing expected
results.
• Comparison unit. It is always desirable to compare results in the intervention situation
with those in another situation where no such change has taken place. Although it is
never possible to get a matching group identical to the intervention group, most
organizations include a number of similar work units that can be used for comparison
purposes.
• Statistical analysis. Whenever possible, statistical methods should be used to rule out
the possibility that the results are caused by random error or chance. Various statistical
techniques are applicable to quasi-experimental designs, and OD practitioners should
apply these methods or seek help from those who can apply them.

Institutionalizing Organizational Changes

Institutionalization Framework: Organization Characteristics

• Congruence. This is the degree to which an intervention is perceived as being in

harmony with the organization’s managerial philosophy, strategy, and structure; its cur-
rent environment; and other changes taking place.
• Stability of environment and technology. This involves the degree to which the
organization’s environment and technology are changing. The persistence of change is
favored when environments are stable.
• Unionization. Diffusion of interventions may be more difficult in unionized settings,
especially if the changes affect union contract issues, such as salary and fringe benefits,
job design, and employee flexibility.
• Goal specificity. This involves the extent to which intervention goals are specific rather
than broad. For example, an intervention aimed only at increasing product quality is
likely to be more focused and readily put into operation than a change program
intended to improve quality, quantity, safety, absenteeism, and employee
development.
• Programmability. This involves the degree the extent to which the different
intervention characteristics can be specified clearly in advance to enable socialization,
commitment, and reward allocation. For example, job enrichment specifies three
targets of change: employee discretion, task variety, and feedback.
• Level of change target. This concerns the extent to which the change target is the total
organization, rather than a department or small work group.
• Internal support. This refers to the degree to which there is an internal support system
to guide the change process.
• Sponsorship. This concerns the presence of a powerful sponsor who can initiate,
allocate, and legitimize resources for the intervention.
• Socialization. This concerns the transmission of information about beliefs, preferences,
norms, and values with respect to the intervention. For example, employee involvement
programs often include initial transmission of information about the intervention, as
well as retraining of existing participants and training of new members.
• Commitment. This binds people to behaviors associated with the intervention. It
includes initial commitment to the program, as well as recommitment over time.
• Reward allocation. This involves linking rewards to the new behaviors required by an
intervention.
• Diffusion. This refers to the process of transferring changes from one system to another.
• Sensing and calibration. This involves detecting deviations from desired intervention
behaviors and taking corrective action.
• Knowledge. This involves the extent to which organization members have knowledge of
the behaviors associated with an intervention.
• Performance. This is concerned with the degree to which intervention behaviors are
actually performed.
• Preferences. This involves the degree to which organization members privately accept
the organizational changes. For example, a questionnaire assessing members’
perceptions of a job enrichment program might show that most employees have a
strong positive attitude toward making decisions, analyzing feedback, and performing a
variety of tasks.
• Normative consensus. This focuses on the extent to which people agree about the
appropriateness of the organizational changes. For example, a job enrichment program
would become institutionalized to the extent that employees support it and see it as
appropriate to organizational functioning.
• Value consensus. This is concerned with social consensus on values relevant to the
organizational changes.